Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review: Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste
2.1. Amino Acids
2.2. Minerals
2.3. Fatty Acids
2.4. Vitamins
3. Food Waste Conversion into Animal Feed
3.1. Legal Framework Regarding Food Waste Utilization in Animal Feed
3.2. Transformation of Food Waste to Feed
3.3. Application in Poultry Nutrition with Emphasis on Fatty Acids Present in Food Waste Material
3.4. Application in Swine Nutrition with Emphasis on Fatty Acids Present in Food Waste Material
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- FAO. Sustainable Food Systems, Concept and Framework; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- FAO. The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving Forward on Food Loss and Waste Reduction; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division. World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights; United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- OECD/FAO. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016-2025 (Summary); OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Godfray, H.C.; Beddington, J.R.; Crute, I.R.; Haddad, L.; Lawrence, D.; Muir, J.F.; Pretty, J.; Robinson, S.; Thomas, S.M.; Toulmin, C. Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 2010, 327, 812–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. World Health Organ. Techn. Rep. Ser. 2003, 916, 20. [Google Scholar]
- Alexandratos, N.; Bruinsma, J. World Agriculture Towards 2030/2050: Τhe 2012 Revision; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Agricultural Development Economics Division (ESA): Rome, Italy, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Truong, L.; Morash, D.; Liu, Y.; King, A. Food waste in animal feed with a focus on use for broilers. Int. J. Recycl. Org. Waste Agric. 2019, 8, 417–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gustavsson, J.; Cederberg, C.; Sonesson, U.; Otterdijk, R.; McYbeck, A. Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Parfitt, J.; Barthel, M.; Macnaughton, S. Food waste within food supply chains: Quantification and potential for change to 2050. Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2010, 365, 3065–3081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- FAO. Food Loss and Waste and the Right to Adequate Food: Making the Connection; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2018; pp. 1–3. [Google Scholar]
- Lipinski, B.; Hanson, C.; Lomax, J.; Kitinoja, L.; Waite, R.; Searchinger, T. Reducing food loss and waste. World Resour. Inst. Work. Paper 2013, 1–40. [Google Scholar]
- Westendorf, M.L. Food Waste as Animal Feed: An Introduction. In Food Waste to Animal Feed; Westendorf, M.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 2000; pp. 3–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stenmarck, A.; Jensen, C.; Quested, T.; Moates, G. Estimates of European Food Waste Levels; Swedish Environmental Research Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Papargyropoulou, E.; Lozano, R.; K. Steinberger, J.; Wright, N.; Ujang, Z.B. The food waste hierarchy as a framework for the management of food surplus and food waste. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 76, 106–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Myer, R.O.; Brendemuhl, J.H.; Johnson, D.D. Evaluation of dehydrated restaurant food waste products as feedstuffs for finishing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 1999, 77, 685–692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jurgilevich, A.; Birge, T.; Kentala-Lehtonen, J.; Korhonen-Kurki, K.; Pietikäinen, J.; Saikku, L.; Schösler, H. Transition towards Circular Economy in the Food System. Sustainability 2016, 8, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dou, Z.; Toth, J.D.; Westendorf, M.L. Food waste for livestock feeding: Feasibility, safety, and sustainability implications. Glob. Food Secur. 2018, 17, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beski, S.S.M.; Swick, R.A.; Iji, P.A. Specialized protein products in broiler chicken nutrition: A review. Anim. Nutr. 2015, 1, 47–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ravindran, V. Poultry Feed Availability and Nutrition in Developing Countries; Poultry Development Review; FAO Publication: Rome, Italy, 2013; pp. 60–63. [Google Scholar]
- Rojas, O.J.; Stein, H.H. Processing of ingredients and diets and effects on nutritional value for pigs. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol. 2017, 8, 48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nuss, E.T.; Tanumihardjo, S.A. Maize: A Paramount Staple Crop in the Context of Global Nutrition. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2010, 9, 417–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferguson, J.D. Food Residue, Loss and Waste as Animal Feed. In Encyclopedia of Renewable and Sustainable Materials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; Volume 5, pp. 395–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Franco, D.A.; Pearl, G. Rendering Food Waste. In Food Waste to Animal Feed; Westendorf, M.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 2000; pp. 241–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) Pork. 2017 Pig Cost of Production in Selected Countries; Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board: Kenilworth, UK, 2018.
- Zu Ermgassen, E.K.; Phalan, B.; Green, R.E.; Balmford, A. Reducing the land use of EU pork production: Where there’s swill, there’s a way. Food Policy 2016, 58, 35–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Westendorf, M.L. Food Waste as Swine Feed. In Food Waste to Animal Feed; Westendorf, M.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 2000; pp. 69–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Castrica, M.; Tedesco, E.A.D.; Panseri, S.; Ferrazzi, G.; Ventura, V.; Frisio, G.D.; Balzaretti, M.C. Pet Food as the Most Concrete Strategy for Using Food Waste as Feedstuff within the European Context: A Feasibility Study. Sustainability 2018, 10, 2035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Garcia, A.J.; Esteban, M.B.; Marquez, M.C.; Ramos, P. Biodegradable municipal solid waste: Characterization and potential use as animal feedstuffs. Waste Manag. 2005, 25, 780–787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Westendorf, M.L.; Dong, Z.C.; Schoknecht, P.A. Recycled cafeteria food waste as a feed for swine: Nutrient content digestibility, growth, and meat quality. J. Anim. Sci. 1998, 76, 2976–2983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Westendorf, M.L.; Schuler, T.; Zirkle, E.W.; Hays, V.W.; Wilson, L.L. Nutritional Quality of Recycled Food Plate Waste in Diets Fed to Swine. Profes. Ani. Sci. (PAS) 1999, 15, 106–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Astley, S.; Finglas, P. Nutrition and Health. In Reference Module in Food Science; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, D.I.; Saraiva, J.M.A.; Vicente, A.A.; Moldão-Martins, M. 2—Methods for determining bioavailability and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds and nutrients. In Innovative Thermal and Non-Thermal Processing, Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds; Barba, F.J., Saraiva, J.M.A., Cravotto, G., Lorenzo, J.M., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2019; pp. 23–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martín Ortega, A.M.; Segura Campos, M.R. Chapter 13—Bioactive Compounds as Therapeutic Alternatives. In Bioactive Compounds; Campos, M.R.S., Ed.; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2019; pp. 247–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donati, E. Advances in dairy products. In Advances in Dairy Products; Contó, F., Del Nobile, M.A., Faccia, M., Zambrini, A.V., Conte, A., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Pogorzelska-Nowicka, E.; Atanasov, G.A.; Horbańczuk, J.; Wierzbicka, A. Bioactive Compounds in Functional Meat Products. Molecules 2018, 23, 307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Myer, R.O.; Brendemuhl, J.H.; Johnson, D.D. Dehydrated Restaurant Food Waste as Swine Feed. In Food Waste to Animal Feed; Westendorf, M.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 2000; pp. 113–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fung, L.; Urriola, P.E.; Baker, L.; Shurson, G.C. Estimated energy and nutrient composition of different sources of food waste and their potential for use in sustainable swine feeding programs. Transl. Anim. Sci. 2018, 3, 359–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cho, Y.; Lee, G.; Jang, J.; Shin, I.; Myung, K.; Choi, K.; Bae, I.; Yang, C. Effects of feeding dried leftover food on growth and body composition of broiler chicks. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2004, 17, 386–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kwak, W.S.; Kang, J. Effect of Feeding Food Waste-Broiler Litter and Bakery By-Product Mixture to Pigs. Bioresour. Technol. 2006, 97, 243–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chae, B.J.; Choi, S.C.; Kim, Y.G.; Kim, C.H.; Sohn, K.S. Effects of feeding dried food waste on growth and nutrient digestibility in growing-finishing pigs. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 13, 1304–1308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asar, E.; Raheem, H.; Daoud, J. Using dried leftover food as nontraditional feed for Muscovy duck diet. Assiut. Vet. Med. J. 2018, 64, 107–114. [Google Scholar]
- Harms, R.H.; Russell, G.B. Adding methionine and lysine to broiler breeder diets to lower feed costs. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 1998, 7, 202–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Choe, J.; Moyo, K.M.; Park, K.; Jeong, J.; Kim, H.; Ryu, Y.; Kim, J.; Kim, J.M.; Lee, S.; Go, G.W. Meat Quality Traits of Pigs Finished on Food Waste. Korean J. Food Sci. An. 2017, 37, 690–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Leeson, S.; Summers, J.D. Scott’s Nutrition of the Chicken, 4th ed.; University Books: Ithaca, NY, USA, 2001; pp. 100–175. [Google Scholar]
- Kornegay, E.T.; Vander Noot, G.W.; MacGrath, W.S.; Barth, K.M. Nutritive Value of Garbage as a Feed for Swine. III. Vitamin Composition, Digestibility and Nitrogen Utilization of Various Types. J. Anim. Sci. 1968, 27, 1345–1349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walker, P. Food Residuals: Waste Product, By-Product, or Coproduct. In Food Waste to Animal Feed; Westendorf, M.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 2000; pp. 17–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brühl, L. Fatty acid alterations in oils and fats during heating and frying. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 707–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salemdeeb, R.; Zu Ermgassen, E.K.; Kim, M.H.; Balmford, A.; Al-Tabbaa, A. Environmental and health impacts of using food waste as animal feed: A comparative analysis of food waste management options. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 140, 871–880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Girotto, F.; Alibardi, L.; Cossu, R. Food waste generation and industrial uses: A review. Waste Manag. 2015, 45, 32–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EC. Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Amending Directive 2008/98/EC on Waste; EC: Brussels, Belgium, 2015.
- FAO. Animal Nutrition in FAO and Sustainable Development Goals; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- EC. Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 October 2002 Laying Down Health Rules Concerning Animal By-Products Not Intended for Human Consumption; EC: Brussels, Belgium, 2002.
- EC. Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 Laying Down Health Rules as Regards Animal By-Products and Derived Products not Intended for Human Consumption and Repealing Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 (Animal By-Products Regulation); EC: Brussels, Belgium, 2009.
- UK House of Commons Report. The 2001 Outbreak of Foot and Mouth Disease; UK House of Commons Report: London, UK, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Westendorf, M.L.; Zirkle Pas, E.W.; Gordon, R. Feeding Food or Table Waste to Livestock. Profes. Anim. Sci. (PAS) 1996, 12, 129–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taft, A.C.; Zirkle, E.W.; Altizio, B.A. The History and Enforcement of the Swine Health Protection Act. In Food Waste to Animal Feed; Westendorf, M.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 2000; pp. 51–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EC. Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/1017 of 15 June 2017 Amending Regulation (EU) No 68/2013 on the Catalogue of Feed Materials (Text with EEA Relevance); EC: Brussels, Belgium, 2017.
- EFFPA. Figures & Network. Available online: https://www.effpa.eu/figures-network/ (accessed on 6 December 2019).
- Sanchez-Vizcaino, J.M. African Swine Fever. In Diseases of Swine, 8th ed.; Mengeling, W.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 1999; pp. 93–112. [Google Scholar]
- House, J.A.; House, C.A. Vesicular Diseases. In Diseases of Swine, 8th ed.; Mengeling, W.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 1999; pp. 327–340. [Google Scholar]
- Van Oirschot, J.T. Classical Swine Fever (Hog Cholera). In Diseases of Swine, 8th ed.; Mengeling, W.L., Ed.; Iowa State University Press: Iowa City, IA, USA, 1999; pp. 159–172. [Google Scholar]
- Whitehead, M.L.; Roberts, V. Backyard poultry: Legislation, zoonoses and disease prevention. J. Small Anim. Pract. 2014, 55, 487–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Raymundo, D.; Carloto Gomes, D.; Boabaid, F.; Colodel, E.; Schmitz, M.; Correa, A.; Dutra, I.; Driemeier, D. Type C botulism in swine fed on restaurant waste. Pesqui Vet. Brasil 2012, 32, 1145–1147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sancho, P.; Pinacho, A.; Ramos, P.; Tejedor, C. Microbiological characterization of food residues for animal feeding. Waste Manag. 2004, 24, 919–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, K.-L.; Chang, H.-J.; Yang, C.-K.; You, S.-H.; Jenq, H.-D.; Yu, B. Effect of Dietary Inclusion of Dehydrated Food Waste Products on Taiwan Native Chicken (Taishi No. 13). Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2007, 20, 754–760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leib, E.B.; Balkus, O.; Rice, C.; Maley, M.; Taneja, R.; Cheng, R.; Civita, N.; Alvoid, T. Leftovers for Livestock: A Legal Guide for Using Excess Food as Animal Feed; The Harvard Food Law and Policy Clinic and the Food Recovery Project at the University of Arkansas School of Law: Fayetteville, AR, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Sugiura, K.; Yamatani, S.; Watahara, M.; Onodera, T. Ecofeed, animal feed produced from recycled food waste. Vet. Ital. 2009, 45, 397–404. [Google Scholar]
- Soetan, K.O.; Oyewole, O.E. The need for adequate processing to reduce the anti-nutritional factors in plants used as human foods and animal feeds: A review. Afr. J. Food Sci. 2009, 3, 223–232. [Google Scholar]
- Nikmaram, N.; Leong, S.Y.; Koubaa, M.; Zhu, Z.; Barba, F.J.; Greiner, R.; Oey, I.; Roohinejad, S. Effect of extrusion on the anti-nutritional factors of food products: An overview. Food Control. 2017, 79, 62–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheraghi Saray, S.; Hosseinkhani, A.; Janmohammadi, H.; Zare, P.; Daghighkia, H. Thermal and probiotic treatment effects on restaurant waste for incorporation into poultry diet. Int. J. Recycl. Org. Waste Agric. 2014, 3, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LIFE-F4F (Food for Feed). Food for Feed: An Innovative Process for Transforming Hotels Food Wastes into Animal Feed. LIFE15 ENV/GR/000257. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.dspPage&n_proj_id=5762 (accessed on 4 December 2019).
- Kouba, M.; Mourot, J. A review of nutritional effects on fat composition of animal products with special emphasis on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biochimie 2011, 93, 13–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conte, G.; Serra, A.; Mele, M. Chapter 2—Dairy Cow Breeding and Feeding on the Milk Fatty Acid Pattern. In Nutrients in Dairy and their Implications on Health and Disease; Watson, R.R., Collier, R.J., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 19–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, D.; Wang, J.Q.; Bu, D.P. Ruminal microbe of biohydrogenation of trans-vaccenic acid to stearic acid in vitro. BMC Res. Notes 2012, 5, 97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hossein, S. Growth Performances, Carcass Yield and Meat Quality of Free Range Village Chickens Fed on Diet Containing Dehydrated Processed Food Waste. Master’s Thesis, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Kojima, S. Dehydrated kitchen waste as a feedstuff for laying hens. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 2005, 4, 689–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fairlie, S. Meat: A Benign Extravagance; Chelsea Green: Hampshire, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Fairlie, S. Meat: The Plight of the Pig in the Nanny State. In A Benign Extravagance; Chelsea Green: Hampshire, UK, 2010; pp. 45–54. [Google Scholar]
- USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. What Swine Growers Need to Know about Garbage Feeding? USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service: Riverdale, MD, USA, 2019.
- Smet, K.; Raes, K.; Huyghebaert, G.; Haak, L.; Arnouts, S.; De Smet, S. Lipid and protein oxidation of broiler meat as influenced by dietary natural antioxidant supplementation. Poult. Sci. 2008, 87, 1682–1688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tabassum, A.; Abbasi, T.; Abbasi, S.A. Reducing the global environmental impact of livestock production: The minilivestock option. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 112, 1754–1766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Food Waste Type | Origin of Food Waste | Key Findings as Reported by Authors | References |
---|---|---|---|
Food service | Restaurant | Average analysis of restaurant waste (RW) from four studies showed range of values CP (15–23%), ash (3–6%), EE (17–24%) | [37] |
RW was ground and had CP (22.0%), ash (12.6%), EE (23.9%) Afterwards, RW was mixed with other feedstuffs and then further processing took place | [40] | ||
RW was ground in a blade mill, mixed and homogenized, and heat processing took place (65–80 °C, 10–60 min) The nutritional composition of RW was CP (27.5%), Ca (0.42–1.7%), P (0.81–2.07%), EE (28.8%) | [29] | ||
RW underwent boiling Methionine, cysteine, lysine, P and Ca contents of the RW were quite similar between RW and a conventional diet Threonine and valine were higher in RW Salt content, PUFA, MUFA and SFA contents, and PUFA/SFA ratio were significantly higher in RW The n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio was significantly lower in RW | [44] | ||
Hospitality sector | Food waste (FW) from Hotels was dried with the use of solar energy. The nutritional composition of the final product was Dry matter (92.74%), CP (25.62%), EE (21.57%), CF (6.75%) | Unpublished data | |
FW contained kitchen and plate waste. FW were minced, pelleted, and dried FW contained CP (18–20%), ash (5–6%), salt content (2.0–2.5%), Ca (0.5–0.8%), P (0.3–0.8%), EE (24–26%) Lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan contents were higher compared to corn, but lower in comparison with soybean meal Afterwards, FW were blended with a dry feedstock | [16] | ||
Restaurant and hotel | Leftover food was minced, heated and dried in hot air oven at 85 °C for 4 h CP (31.3%), ash (14.75%), EE (26.08%) | [42] | |
Food service and Households | Restaurant and apartment complex areas | FW was dried in a drum type dryer at 115 ± 2 °C CP (25%), salt content (3.28%), EE (17.3%) The majority of the essential amino acids, such as methionine and lysine, were considerably lower in quantity than that of a corn and soybean mix (60%:40% ratio) | [41] |
Commercial and residential locations | FW contained CP (27.6%), ash (14.56%), Ca (1.09–1.25%), P (0.16–0.30%), K (0.56–0.76%), Mg (0.1–0.2%), EE (9.12%), oleic acid (30.63% of EE), linoleic acid (25.5% of EE), linolenic acid (3.03% of EE), and had PUFA/SFA ratio (0.78), n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio (7.94) | [28] | |
Institutional | University dining hall | FW was dried in a forced-air oven at 60 °C for 72 h. Samples were ground and mixed FW contained CP (18.9%), ash (5.01%), Ca (0.04–0.46%), P (0.23–0.37%), EE (13.58%), arachidonic acid (0.20% of EE), linoleic acid (29.31% of EE), linolenic acid (3.82% of EE) | [38] |
Food services Institutional, Military, and Municipal | Hotel and restaurant etc. | Thiamine and niacin concentrations of cooked food waste were adequate to meet the nutritional requirements for swine, while the pantothenic acid concentration was deficient | [46] |
Type unknown | Origin unknown | Leftover food was processed using fluidized bed dry method. Leftover food contained CP (22%) and EE (10.66%) | [39] |
Animal Model | Study Design | Key Findings as Reported by Authors | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Broiler (Ross) | Diets contained 0%, 10%, 20%, or 30% dried leftover food (DLF) or 10% DLF and 5% higher protein level (PL), 20% DLF and 10% higher PL or 30% DLF and 15% higher PL than control diet | DLF contained 20.62% CP, and 9.99% EE DHA content was numerically higher in meat of DLF groups, but was not significantly different EPA content in meat was significantly higher in meat of the 30% DLF, 10% DLF and 5% higher PL, and 30% DLF and 15% higher PL groups compared to the control group Linolenic acid content in meat was numerically higher in DLF groups, though significantly higher in 10% and 30% DLF treatments, and in 10% DLF and 5% higher PL, and 20% DLF and 10% higher PL groups compared to the control group Linoleic acid content in meat was numerically higher in DLF groups, though significantly higher in 10% DLF, and 10% DLF and 5% higher PL groups compared to the control group Myristic acid content in meat was significantly higher in 10% DLF and 5% higher PL group Palmitic acid content in meat presented no significant differences among treatments Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) content in meat was significantly lower in 10% DLF, and DLF and higher PL groups compared to the control group Arachidonic acid content in broiler meat showed no significant differences among treatments. Cholesterol concentration in broiler meat was numerically higher in groups fed diets containing 10% or 20% DLF (101.18 and 102.12 mg/g, respectively) compared to the control group (92 mg/g) | [39] |
Free range village chickens | Diets contained dehydrated restaurant waste (RW) at 0%, 20%, 40% or 60% level | RW had a higher proportion of SFA than the diet of the control group SFA content in meat was significantly higher in groups fed RW PUFA content in meat decreased linearly with increasing inclusion of RW in the diet PUFA/SFA ratio decreased with increasing incorporation of RW in diets The minimum PUFA/SFA ratio was found in group fed diet containing 60% RW, which increased with decreasing inclusion of RW in the diet n-6 fatty acid content decreased with increasing inclusion of RW in diet, while the n-3 fatty acid content increased | [76] |
Laying hens | Diets contained 0%, 12.5%, 25% or 50% dehydrated kitchen waste product | The dehydrated kitchen waste product had 15.14% CP, and 5.33% EE PUFA content was the highest in egg yolk from hens fed diet containing 50% kitchen waste, while SFA was the lowest compared to control C18:1 and C18:3 content in egg yolk tended to elevate with increasing incorporation of kitchen waste in diets. | [77] |
Swine | Control group was fed a conventional diet, and experimental group was fed solely boiled restaurant waste during the growing (6 wk) and finishing period (12 wk) and then the conventional feed for 4 wk before slaughtering | CP and total lipids of RW were 26.59% and 7.33%, respectively CP and total lipids of the conventional diet were 20.21% and 15.67%, respectively PUFA content in RW vs. control feed was 25.08% vs. 21.04% while PUFA/SFA ratio was 0.73 vs. 0.57 Positive correlation of fatty acid profile between RW and pork loin, and backfat PUFA content in pork loin compared to the control group was 22% vs. 15.21% and PUFA/SFA ratio 0.6 vs 0.38 was significantly higher, while SFA (37.04% vs. 40.04%) and monounsaturated fatty acid content (MUFA, 40.96% vs. 44.75%) was significantly lower in the experimental group Back fat in swine fed RW showed similar results with those of loin regarding the fatty acid profile with SFA being the exception Lipid peroxidation of pork loin was higher in the group fed RW In comparison to control, pork loin of swine fed RW had higher concentration of EPA (0.44% vs. 0.09%), DHA (0.71% vs. 0.23%), linoleic acid (17.91% vs. 12.68%), and linolenic acid (1.17% vs. 0.61%) EPA (0.13% vs. 0.04%), DHA (0.52% vs. 0.17%), linoleic acid (18.48% vs. 13.65%), and linolenic acid (1.58% vs. 0.91%) content in backfat was significantly higher than that of the control group Arachidonic acid content in loin and backfat was similar in both the control and experimental groups | [44] |
Swine | Diets contained 0%, 25%, or 50% food waste mixture and a corn-soy diet | Percentage of total SFA and USFA, MUFA/SFA and PUFA/SFA ratios of longissimus muscle were not affected by the incorporation of the food waste mixture | [40] |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Georganas, A.; Giamouri, E.; Pappas, A.C.; Papadomichelakis, G.; Galliou, F.; Manios, T.; Tsiplakou, E.; Fegeros, K.; Zervas, G. Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed. Foods 2020, 9, 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291
Georganas A, Giamouri E, Pappas AC, Papadomichelakis G, Galliou F, Manios T, Tsiplakou E, Fegeros K, Zervas G. Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed. Foods. 2020; 9(3):291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291
Chicago/Turabian StyleGeorganas, Alexandros, Elisavet Giamouri, Athanasios C. Pappas, George Papadomichelakis, Fenia Galliou, Thrassyvoulos Manios, Eleni Tsiplakou, Kostas Fegeros, and George Zervas. 2020. "Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed" Foods 9, no. 3: 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291
APA StyleGeorganas, A., Giamouri, E., Pappas, A. C., Papadomichelakis, G., Galliou, F., Manios, T., Tsiplakou, E., Fegeros, K., & Zervas, G. (2020). Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed. Foods, 9(3), 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291