Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review: Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste
2.1. Amino Acids
2.2. Minerals
2.3. Fatty Acids
2.4. Vitamins
3. Food Waste Conversion into Animal Feed
3.1. Legal Framework Regarding Food Waste Utilization in Animal Feed
3.2. Transformation of Food Waste to Feed
3.3. Application in Poultry Nutrition with Emphasis on Fatty Acids Present in Food Waste Material
3.4. Application in Swine Nutrition with Emphasis on Fatty Acids Present in Food Waste Material
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food Waste Type | Origin of Food Waste | Key Findings as Reported by Authors | References |
---|---|---|---|
Food service | Restaurant | Average analysis of restaurant waste (RW) from four studies showed range of values CP (15–23%), ash (3–6%), EE (17–24%) | [37] |
RW was ground and had CP (22.0%), ash (12.6%), EE (23.9%) Afterwards, RW was mixed with other feedstuffs and then further processing took place | [40] | ||
RW was ground in a blade mill, mixed and homogenized, and heat processing took place (65–80 °C, 10–60 min) The nutritional composition of RW was CP (27.5%), Ca (0.42–1.7%), P (0.81–2.07%), EE (28.8%) | [29] | ||
RW underwent boiling Methionine, cysteine, lysine, P and Ca contents of the RW were quite similar between RW and a conventional diet Threonine and valine were higher in RW Salt content, PUFA, MUFA and SFA contents, and PUFA/SFA ratio were significantly higher in RW The n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio was significantly lower in RW | [44] | ||
Hospitality sector | Food waste (FW) from Hotels was dried with the use of solar energy. The nutritional composition of the final product was Dry matter (92.74%), CP (25.62%), EE (21.57%), CF (6.75%) | Unpublished data | |
FW contained kitchen and plate waste. FW were minced, pelleted, and dried FW contained CP (18–20%), ash (5–6%), salt content (2.0–2.5%), Ca (0.5–0.8%), P (0.3–0.8%), EE (24–26%) Lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan contents were higher compared to corn, but lower in comparison with soybean meal Afterwards, FW were blended with a dry feedstock | [16] | ||
Restaurant and hotel | Leftover food was minced, heated and dried in hot air oven at 85 °C for 4 h CP (31.3%), ash (14.75%), EE (26.08%) | [42] | |
Food service and Households | Restaurant and apartment complex areas | FW was dried in a drum type dryer at 115 ± 2 °C CP (25%), salt content (3.28%), EE (17.3%) The majority of the essential amino acids, such as methionine and lysine, were considerably lower in quantity than that of a corn and soybean mix (60%:40% ratio) | [41] |
Commercial and residential locations | FW contained CP (27.6%), ash (14.56%), Ca (1.09–1.25%), P (0.16–0.30%), K (0.56–0.76%), Mg (0.1–0.2%), EE (9.12%), oleic acid (30.63% of EE), linoleic acid (25.5% of EE), linolenic acid (3.03% of EE), and had PUFA/SFA ratio (0.78), n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio (7.94) | [28] | |
Institutional | University dining hall | FW was dried in a forced-air oven at 60 °C for 72 h. Samples were ground and mixed FW contained CP (18.9%), ash (5.01%), Ca (0.04–0.46%), P (0.23–0.37%), EE (13.58%), arachidonic acid (0.20% of EE), linoleic acid (29.31% of EE), linolenic acid (3.82% of EE) | [38] |
Food services Institutional, Military, and Municipal | Hotel and restaurant etc. | Thiamine and niacin concentrations of cooked food waste were adequate to meet the nutritional requirements for swine, while the pantothenic acid concentration was deficient | [46] |
Type unknown | Origin unknown | Leftover food was processed using fluidized bed dry method. Leftover food contained CP (22%) and EE (10.66%) | [39] |
Animal Model | Study Design | Key Findings as Reported by Authors | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Broiler (Ross) | Diets contained 0%, 10%, 20%, or 30% dried leftover food (DLF) or 10% DLF and 5% higher protein level (PL), 20% DLF and 10% higher PL or 30% DLF and 15% higher PL than control diet | DLF contained 20.62% CP, and 9.99% EE DHA content was numerically higher in meat of DLF groups, but was not significantly different EPA content in meat was significantly higher in meat of the 30% DLF, 10% DLF and 5% higher PL, and 30% DLF and 15% higher PL groups compared to the control group Linolenic acid content in meat was numerically higher in DLF groups, though significantly higher in 10% and 30% DLF treatments, and in 10% DLF and 5% higher PL, and 20% DLF and 10% higher PL groups compared to the control group Linoleic acid content in meat was numerically higher in DLF groups, though significantly higher in 10% DLF, and 10% DLF and 5% higher PL groups compared to the control group Myristic acid content in meat was significantly higher in 10% DLF and 5% higher PL group Palmitic acid content in meat presented no significant differences among treatments Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) content in meat was significantly lower in 10% DLF, and DLF and higher PL groups compared to the control group Arachidonic acid content in broiler meat showed no significant differences among treatments. Cholesterol concentration in broiler meat was numerically higher in groups fed diets containing 10% or 20% DLF (101.18 and 102.12 mg/g, respectively) compared to the control group (92 mg/g) | [39] |
Free range village chickens | Diets contained dehydrated restaurant waste (RW) at 0%, 20%, 40% or 60% level | RW had a higher proportion of SFA than the diet of the control group SFA content in meat was significantly higher in groups fed RW PUFA content in meat decreased linearly with increasing inclusion of RW in the diet PUFA/SFA ratio decreased with increasing incorporation of RW in diets The minimum PUFA/SFA ratio was found in group fed diet containing 60% RW, which increased with decreasing inclusion of RW in the diet n-6 fatty acid content decreased with increasing inclusion of RW in diet, while the n-3 fatty acid content increased | [76] |
Laying hens | Diets contained 0%, 12.5%, 25% or 50% dehydrated kitchen waste product | The dehydrated kitchen waste product had 15.14% CP, and 5.33% EE PUFA content was the highest in egg yolk from hens fed diet containing 50% kitchen waste, while SFA was the lowest compared to control C18:1 and C18:3 content in egg yolk tended to elevate with increasing incorporation of kitchen waste in diets. | [77] |
Swine | Control group was fed a conventional diet, and experimental group was fed solely boiled restaurant waste during the growing (6 wk) and finishing period (12 wk) and then the conventional feed for 4 wk before slaughtering | CP and total lipids of RW were 26.59% and 7.33%, respectively CP and total lipids of the conventional diet were 20.21% and 15.67%, respectively PUFA content in RW vs. control feed was 25.08% vs. 21.04% while PUFA/SFA ratio was 0.73 vs. 0.57 Positive correlation of fatty acid profile between RW and pork loin, and backfat PUFA content in pork loin compared to the control group was 22% vs. 15.21% and PUFA/SFA ratio 0.6 vs 0.38 was significantly higher, while SFA (37.04% vs. 40.04%) and monounsaturated fatty acid content (MUFA, 40.96% vs. 44.75%) was significantly lower in the experimental group Back fat in swine fed RW showed similar results with those of loin regarding the fatty acid profile with SFA being the exception Lipid peroxidation of pork loin was higher in the group fed RW In comparison to control, pork loin of swine fed RW had higher concentration of EPA (0.44% vs. 0.09%), DHA (0.71% vs. 0.23%), linoleic acid (17.91% vs. 12.68%), and linolenic acid (1.17% vs. 0.61%) EPA (0.13% vs. 0.04%), DHA (0.52% vs. 0.17%), linoleic acid (18.48% vs. 13.65%), and linolenic acid (1.58% vs. 0.91%) content in backfat was significantly higher than that of the control group Arachidonic acid content in loin and backfat was similar in both the control and experimental groups | [44] |
Swine | Diets contained 0%, 25%, or 50% food waste mixture and a corn-soy diet | Percentage of total SFA and USFA, MUFA/SFA and PUFA/SFA ratios of longissimus muscle were not affected by the incorporation of the food waste mixture | [40] |
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Georganas, A.; Giamouri, E.; Pappas, A.C.; Papadomichelakis, G.; Galliou, F.; Manios, T.; Tsiplakou, E.; Fegeros, K.; Zervas, G. Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed. Foods 2020, 9, 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291
Georganas A, Giamouri E, Pappas AC, Papadomichelakis G, Galliou F, Manios T, Tsiplakou E, Fegeros K, Zervas G. Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed. Foods. 2020; 9(3):291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291
Chicago/Turabian StyleGeorganas, Alexandros, Elisavet Giamouri, Athanasios C. Pappas, George Papadomichelakis, Fenia Galliou, Thrassyvoulos Manios, Eleni Tsiplakou, Kostas Fegeros, and George Zervas. 2020. "Bioactive Compounds in Food Waste: A Review on the Transformation of Food Waste to Animal Feed" Foods 9, no. 3: 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030291