A New Insight on Cardoon: Exploring New Uses besides Cheese Making with a View to Zero Waste
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Cardoon Botanical Description, Distribution, and Cultivation
3. Cardoon Flower—Cheese Making
4. Cardoon By-Products and their Current Applications
4.1. Biomass
4.1.1. Solid Biofuel
4.1.2. Seed Oil and Biodiesel
4.1.3. Paper Pulp
4.1.4. Green Forage
4.2. Source of Bioactive Compounds
4.2.1. Stems
4.2.2. Leaves
5. Bioactive Properties of Cardoon Leaves
5.1. Nutritional Value
5.2. Phenolic Composition and Antioxidant Properties
5.3. Antimicrobial and Antifungal Properties
5.4. Phytotoxic and Allelopathic Properties
6. Cardoon Leaves and Potential Applications
Food Packaging
7. Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Species/Variety | Presentation form and Extraction Procedure | Main Bioactive Compounds and Levels Found | Main Conclusion | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
C. cardunculus L. var. sylvestris | Hydroethanolic extract: 1 g of dried samples was added to 30 mL of solvent (ethanol:water, 80:20, v/v) for 1 h. It was filtered and reextracted in 30 mL of solvent for 1 h. The combined extracts were evaporated until dryness of the ethanol at 35 °C and the aqueous phase was frozen and lyophilized. | 3-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (0.48 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | The authors concluded that the hydroethanolic was more effective than the infusion preparation in the extraction of active compounds. | [59] |
5-Hydroxyferuloylglycoside (1.3 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
4-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (13.6 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (0.179 ± 0.001 mg/g of extract) | ||||
3-O-Feruloylquinic acid (0.32 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | ||||
5-O-Feruloylquinic acid (0.53 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Luteolin-O-hexoside (5.5 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Pinoresinol-O-hexoside (0.37 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | ||||
3,4-O-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (6.492 ± 0.002 mg/g of extract) | ||||
3,5-O-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (0.331 ± 0.001 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Luteolin-O-malonylhexoside (7.39 ± 0.02 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Acetylapigenin-O-hexoside (1.85 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Total phenolic acids (23.6 ± 0.2 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Total flavonoids (14.7 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Total phenolic compounds (38.3 ± 0.3 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Infusion preparation: 1 g of dried samples was added to 100 mL of boiling distilled water, left to stand for 5 min, filtered, and then frozen and lyophilized. | 3-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (0.66 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | |||
5-Hydroxyferuloylglycoside (0.95 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | ||||
4-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (10.2 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (0.185 ± 0.003 mg/g of extract) | ||||
3-O-Feruloylquinic acid (0.25 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
5-O-Feruloylquinic acid (0.39 ± 0.01 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Luteolin-O-hexoside (1.6 ± 0.1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
3,4-O-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (3.5 ± 0.2 mg/g of extract) | ||||
3,5-O-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (0.319 ± 0.001 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Luteolin-O-malonylhexoside (5.8 ± 0.2 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Acetylapigenin-O-hexoside (4.73 ± 0.04 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Total phenolic acids (16.0 ± 0.3 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Total flavonoids (12.1 ± 0.2 mg/g of extract) | ||||
Total phenolic compounds (29 ± 1 mg/g of extract) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. sylvestris | Dried samples were extracted in 1 mL of 70% methanol, containing butylated hydroxytoluene and hesperetin, for 1 h at room temperature with shaking. After centrifugation, the supernatant was transferred to a microfuge tube, and the sample was centrifuged once more with 0.25 mL of 70% methanol. The supernatants were combined and kept at −20 °C until analysis. | Luteolin glucoside (0.8 g/kg DM) | Both wild and cultivated cardoon presented a good profile of polyphenols, but the cultivated cardoon profile was richer and more variable than the wild cardoon. The apigenin derivates were the most abundant compounds in both cases. | [52] |
Luteolin glucuronide (1.9 ± 0.1 g/kg DM) | ||||
Luteolin (0.3 g/kg DM) | ||||
Total luteolin (3.2 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin rutinoside (0.2 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin glucuronide (3.3 ± 0.1 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin (1.3 g/kg DM) | ||||
Total apigenin (4.8 g/kg DM) | ||||
Total measured polyphenols (8.0 g/kg DM) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. altilis | 5-Caffeoylquinic acid (0.3 g/kg DM) | |||
Total caffeoylquinic acid (0.3 g/kg DM) | ||||
Luteolin glucoside (0.1 g/kg DM) | ||||
Luteolin glucuronide (2.4 ± 0.3 g/kg DM) | ||||
Luteolin (0.9 ± 0.1 g/kg DM) | ||||
Total luteolin (3.4 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin rutinoside (0.5 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin glucuronide (3.3 ± 0.3 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin malonylglucoside (0.4 g/kg DM) | ||||
Apigenin (1.3 ± 0.2 g/kg DM) | ||||
Total apigenin (5.6 g/kg DM) | ||||
Total measured polyphenols (9.3 g/kg DM) | ||||
C. cardunculus | Leaves were dried at room temperature for two weeks. The extract was made with 2.5 g of dry powder with 25 mL of solvent (methanol) under stirring for 30 min. Then the extract was filtered, evaporated to dryness under vacuum, and stored at 4 °C until analysis. | Polyphenol content (14.79 (mg/GAE g DW) | The sample exhibit a very good bioactive compounds profile, greater than several other species, mainly due to the hard climate conditions of development. | [8] |
Flavonoid content (9.08 mg/CE g DW) | ||||
Tannin content (1.96 mg/CE g DW) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. sylvestris | The samples were lyophilized, after comminuted to a powder. The powder was extracted in quadruplicate with 3 × 50 mL of ethanol (70% v/v) at room temperature, under stirring. The extracts were completely defatted with n-hexane (4 × 20 mL), then concentrated under vacuum and rinsed with the extraction solvent to a final volume of 25 mL. Hydro-alcoholic extracts were stored at −20 °C until use. | 1-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (8.23 ± 0.68 µmol/g d wt) | Both wild and cultivated cardoon presented a good profile of polyphenols, but the wild cardoon profile was richer and more variable than the cultivated cardoon. The samples were both rich in different flavonoids compounds, and the authors emphasized their role in the protection of the plant against UV-radiation. | [60] |
Chlorogenic acid (61.84 ± 2.09 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-rutinoside (1.10 ± 0.21 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucoside (27.29 ± 1.87 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Dicaffeoylquinic acids (114.57 ± 4.25 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-malonylglucoside (14.62 ± 0.41 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Apigenin 7-O-rutinoside (1.11 ± 0.11 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin (0.80 ± 0.01 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucuronide (34.61 ± 1.48 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Apigenin 7-O-glucuronide (23.72 ± 0.06 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Apigenin (4.74 ± 0.14 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Total polyphenols (292.63 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. altilis | 1-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (9.53 ± 2.63 µmol/g d wt) | |||
Chlorogenic acid (73.68 ± 4.83 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucoside (33.55 ± 8.21 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Dicaffeoylquinic acids (29.17 ± 9.26 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Succinyldicaffeoylquinic acid (8.67 ± 0.41 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-malonylglucoside (43.00 ± 0.50 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Succinyldicaffeoylquinic acid (2.20 ± 0.16 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin (1.68 ± 0.08 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucuronide (13.70 ± 2.40 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
Total polyphenols (215.18 µmol/g d wt) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. scolymus | Infusion: 20 g of dried chopped leaves was added to 1000 mL of ultra-pure water at 95 °C, and the mixture was left to stand for 10 min and then filtered through cotton. Extract were frozen and freeze-dried. | Chlorogenic acid (64 ± 2 mg/g extract) | All extracts presented good phenolic content. The infusion extract presented higher phenolic content. Chlorogenic acid was the major phenolic compound identified in all extracts. | [66] |
p-Coumaroylquinic acid (1.1 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
5-Feruloylquinic acid (1.6 ± 0.3 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-rutinoside (7.6 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-glucoside (cynaroside) (3.0 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
3,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (2.1 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
1,3-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (cynarin) (22.4 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-malonyl-hexoside (1.7 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
4,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (5.1 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Phenolic contents (108 ± 2 mg/g extract) | ||||
Decoction: The dried chopped leaves (20 g) were added to 1000 mL of ultrapure water, heated, and boiled for 10 min, and then the mixture was removed from the heat and left to stand for 5 min to be filtered through cotton. The extract was frozen and freeze-dried. | Chlorogenic acid (40 ± 3 mg/g extract) | |||
p-Coumaroylquinic acid (1.1 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
5-Feruloylquinic acid (0.9 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-rutinoside (7.4 ± 0.8 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-glucoside (cynaroside) (2.9 ± 0.4 mg/g extract) | ||||
3,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (0.9 ± 0.3 mg/g extract) | ||||
1,3-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (cynarin) (6.5 ± 0.5 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-malonyl-hexoside (1.3 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
4,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (1.9 ± 0.4 mg/g extract) | ||||
Phenolic content (63 ± 5 mg/g extract) | ||||
Hydroalcoholic extract: 20 g of dried chopped leaves was added to 1000 mL of a mixture of ethanol/water (70:30, v/v) and stirred on an orbital shaker (70 rpm) for 12 h at 25 °C. The hydroalcoholic mixture was filtered through cotton, concentrated under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator (40 °C), and then freeze-dried. | Chlorogenic acid (43 ± 2 mg/g extract) | |||
5-Feruloylquinic acid (0.6 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-rutinoside (9.3 ± 0.4 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-glucoside (cynaroside) (3.8 ± 0.3 mg/g extract) | ||||
3,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (0.03 ± 0.01 mg/g extract) | ||||
1,3-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (cynarin) (14 ± 1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Luteolin-7-malonyl-hexoside (1.0 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
4,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (1.1 ± 0.1 mg/g extract) | ||||
Phenolic content (73 ± 4 mg/g extract) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. altilis | Bidistilled water extract: Dried leaves were soaked in bidistilled water in the ratio 1:10 w/v. Then, the mixture was kept under dark conditions for 72 h at room temperature (20 °C ± 1) and filtered to eliminate the solid fraction. | 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (51.3 ± 0.2 mg/L) | Caffeoylquinic acid represents more than 50% of the total phenolic compounds present in the extracts. The methanolic extract was more efficient in extracting the compounds, followed by the ethanolic and water extracts. | [63] |
1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid (119.3 ± 33.3 mg/L) | ||||
Monosuccinildicaffeoylquinic acid (37.6 ± 1.0 mg/L) | ||||
Total caffeoylquinic acid (208 mg/L) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucoronide (10.9 ± 0.4 mg/L) | ||||
Luteolin (53.2 ± 0.4 mg/L) | ||||
Total luteolin (64 mg/L) | ||||
Cynaropicrin (5.4 ± 0.2 mg/L) | ||||
Total measured polyphenols (272 mg/L) | ||||
Ethanolic extract: Dried leaves were soaked in 80% ethanol in the ratio 1:10 w/v. Then, the mixture was kept under dark conditions for 72 h at room temperature (20 °C ± 1) and filtered to eliminate the solid fraction. The ethanolic solution was evaporated at 35 °C with a rotary evaporator, and the residue was dissolved in bidistilled water to maintain the same ratio. | 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (340.0 ± 0.9 mg/L) | |||
1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid (230.5 ± 1.5 mg/L) | ||||
Monosuccinildicaffeoylquinic acid (36.4 ± 0.3 mg/L) | ||||
Total caffeoylquinic acid (607 mg/L) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucoronide (189.4 ± 0.06 mg/L) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-malonylglucoside (50.5 ± 0.01 mg/L) | ||||
Total luteolin (240 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin 7-O-glucoside (45.4 ± 0.4 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin 7-O-glucoronide (87.7 ± 0.8 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin malonylglucoside (62.0 ± 1.6 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin (3.8 ± 0.1 mg/L) | ||||
Total apigenin (199 mg/L) | ||||
Cynaropicrin (10.7 ± 0.9 mg/L) | ||||
Total measured polyphenols (1046 mg/L) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. altilis | Methanolic extract: Dried leaves were soaked in 70% methanol in the ratio 1:10 w/v. Then, the mixture was kept under dark conditions for 72 h at room temperature (20 °C ± 1) and filtered to eliminate the solid fraction. The methanolic solution was evaporated at 35 °C with a rotary evaporator, and the residue was dissolved in bidistilled water to maintain the same ratio. | 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (632.0 ± 0.1 mg/L) | Caffeoylquinic acid represents more than 50% of the total phenolic compounds present in the extracts. The methanolic extract was more efficient in extracting the compounds, followed by the ethanolic and water extract. | [63] |
1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid (206.4 ± 0.3 mg/L) | ||||
Monosuccinildicaffeoylquinic acid (59.4 ± 0.01 mg/L) | ||||
Total caffeoylquinic acid (898 mg/L) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-glucoronide (22.7 mg/L) | ||||
Luteolin 7-O-malonylglucoside (83.3 ± 0.01 mg/L) | ||||
Total luteolin (106 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin 7-O-glucoside (61.7 ± 0.04 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin 7-O-glucoronide (115.0 ± 0.2 mg/L) | ||||
Apigenin malonylglucoside (72.1 ± 0.04 mg/L) | ||||
Total apigenin (249 mg/L) | ||||
Cynaropicrin (15.8 ± 0.1 mg/L) | ||||
Total measured polyphenols (1253 mg/L) |
Species/Variety | Presentation form and Extraction Procedure | Main Bioactive Compounds and Levels Found | Main Conclusion | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
C. cardunculus L. var. sylvestris | Hydroethanolic extract: 1 g of dried samples in 30 mL of solvent (ethanol:water, 80:20, v/v) for 1 h. Filtered and re-extracted in 30 mL of solvent for 1 h. The combined extracts were evaporated to dryness of the ethanol at 35 °C, and the aqueous phase was frozen and lyophilized. | Escherichia coli (MIC = 2.5 mg/mL) | Both extracts were demonstrated to have good antimicrobial activities, with low MIC values. The authors’ concluded that the ethanolic extract was more effective when compared with other results obtained in this study. | [59] |
Escherichia coli ESBL (MIC = 10 mg/mL) | ||||
Klebsiella pneumoniae (MIC = 20 mg/mL) | ||||
Klebsiella pneumoniae ESBL (MIC = 20 mg/mL) | ||||
Morganella morganii (MIC = 10 mg/mL) | ||||
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC = 10 mg/mL) | ||||
Enterococcus faecalis (MIC = 5 mg/mL) | ||||
Listeria monocytogenes (MIC = 10 mg/mL) | ||||
MRSA (MIC = 5 mg/mL) | ||||
MSSA (MIC = 5 mg/mL) | ||||
Infusion preparation: 1 g of dried samples was added to 100 mL of boiling distilled water, left to stand for 5 min, filtered, and then frozen and lyophilized. | Escherichia coli (MIC = 2.5 mg/mL) | |||
Escherichia coli ESBL (MIC = 5 mg/mL) | ||||
Klebsiella pneumoniae (MIC = 20 mg/mL) | ||||
Klebsiella pneumoniae ESBL (MIC = 20 mg/mL) | ||||
Morganella morganii (MIC = 2.5 mg/mL) | ||||
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC = 20 mg/mL) | ||||
Enterococcus faecalis (MIC = 10 mg/mL) | ||||
Listeria monocytogenes (MIC = 10 mg/mL) | ||||
MRSA (MIC = 5 mg/mL) | ||||
MSSA (MIC = 5 mg/mL) | ||||
C. cardunculus | Extract: Leaves were dried at room temperature for two weeks. The extract was made with 2.5 g of dry powder with 25 mL of solvent (methanol), under stirring for 30 min. Then the extract was filtered and evaporated to dryness under vacuum and stored at 4 °C until analysis. | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923 (DGI = 25.7 ± 0.6 mm) | The extract was effective against several human pathogenic bacteria but unfortunately had no activity against Salmonella typhimurium LT2. Antimicrobial activities could be related to the presence of phenolic compounds. | [8] |
Staphylococcus epidermidis CIP106510 (DGI = 20.3 mm) | ||||
Micrococcus luteus NCIMB 8166 (DGI = 21.7 ± 0.6 mm) | ||||
Escherichia coli ATCC 35,218 (DGI = 22.3 mm) | ||||
Enterococcus faecalis ATCC29212 (DGI = 16.3 ± 0.6 mm) | ||||
Listeria monocytogenes ATCC19115 (DGI = 9.3 ± 0.6 mm) | ||||
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27,853 (DGI = 13.7 ± 0.6 mm) | ||||
Salmonella typhimurium LT2 (DGI = 0 mm) | ||||
C. cardunculus L. var. altilis | Bidistilled water extract: Dried leaves were soaked in bidistilled water in the ratio 1:10 w/v. Then, the mixture was kept under dark conditions for 72 h at room temperature (20 °C ± 1) and filtered to eliminate the solid fraction. | Bacillus cereus (DGI = 0.7 cm) | Water extract was effective against Gram-positive bacteria, although methanolic and ethanolic extracts controlled the growth more effectively. Regarding Gram-negative bacteria, the methanolic extract was not effective, and the ethanolic extract showed detectable antibacterial activity. Overall, the ethanolic extract was more efficient against the studied bacteria when compared to the other two extracts. | [63] |
Bacillus megaterium (DGI = 0.8 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Listeria innocua (DGI = 0.8 cm) | ||||
Pseudomonas syringae pv. Tomato (DGI = 1.2 cm) | ||||
Rhodococcus fascians (DGI = 0.6 cm) | ||||
Staphylococcus aureus (DGI = 0.7 cm) | ||||
Xanthomonas perforans (DGI = 1.5 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Ethanolic extract: Dried leaves were soaked in ethanol 80% in the ratio 1:10 w/v. Then, the mixture was kept under dark conditions for 72 h at room temperature (20 °C ± 1) and filtered to eliminate the solid fraction. The ethanolic solution was evaporated at 35 °C with a rotary evaporator, and the residue was dissolved in bidistilled water to maintain the same ratio. | Bacillus cereus (DGI = 0.9 ± 0.1 cm) | |||
Bacillus megaterium (DGI = 2.3 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Bacillus subtilis (DGI = 0.8 cm) | ||||
Listeria innocua (DGI = 0.8 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Pseudomonas fluorescens (DGI = 0.7 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Pseudomonas syringae pv. Tomato (DGI = 0.6 cm) | ||||
Rhodococcus fascians (DGI = 1.2 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Staphylococcus aureus (DGI = 1.1 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Xanthomonas perforans (DGI = 0.4 cm) | ||||
Methanolic extract: Dried leaves were soaked in methanol 70% in the ratio 1:10 w/v. Then, the mixture was kept under dark conditions for 72 h at room temperature (20 °C ± 1) and filtered to eliminate the solid fraction. The methanolic solution was evaporated at 35 °C with a rotary evaporator and the residue was dissolved in bidistilled water to maintain the same ratio. | Bacillus cereus (DGI = 1.3 ± 0.1 cm) | |||
Bacillus megaterium (DGI = 1.3 ± 0.1 cm) | ||||
Bacillus subtilis (DGI = 0.8 cm) | ||||
Listeria innocua (DGI = 1.2 cm) | ||||
Rhodococcus fascians (DGI = 1.2 cm) | ||||
Staphylococcus aureus (DGI = 1 ± 0.1 cm) |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Barbosa, C.H.; Andrade, M.A.; Vilarinho, F.; Castanheira, I.; Fernando, A.L.; Loizzo, M.R.; Sanches Silva, A. A New Insight on Cardoon: Exploring New Uses besides Cheese Making with a View to Zero Waste. Foods 2020, 9, 564. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050564
Barbosa CH, Andrade MA, Vilarinho F, Castanheira I, Fernando AL, Loizzo MR, Sanches Silva A. A New Insight on Cardoon: Exploring New Uses besides Cheese Making with a View to Zero Waste. Foods. 2020; 9(5):564. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050564
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarbosa, Cássia H., Mariana A. Andrade, Fernanda Vilarinho, Isabel Castanheira, Ana Luísa Fernando, Monica Rosa Loizzo, and Ana Sanches Silva. 2020. "A New Insight on Cardoon: Exploring New Uses besides Cheese Making with a View to Zero Waste" Foods 9, no. 5: 564. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050564