Effect of Chia as Breadmaking Ingredient on Nutritional Quality, Mineral Availability, and Glycemic Index of Bread
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Breadmaking Process
2.3. Composition of Raw Materials and Breads
2.4. Determination of Myo-Inositol Phosphates
2.5. Amino Acid Composition
2.6. Amino Acid Score
2.7. Fatty Acid Profile
2.8. Estimation of In Vitro Glycemic Index
2.9. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Evaluation of Quality Proteins
3.2. Evaluation of Fatty Acid Profile
Amino Acid | Raw Materials | Bread Formula | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wheat (W) | Chia Whole Seeds (CWS) | Chia Whole Flour (CWF) | Chia Semi-Defatted Flour (CSDF) | Chia Low-Fat Flour (CLFF) | Control (WB) | Chia Seeds (CWSB) | Chia Whole Flour (CWFB) | Chia Semi-Defatted Flour (CSDFB) | Chia Low-Fat Flour (CLFFB) | |||||
5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | |||||||
Proteins, % d.m. | 10.1 ± 0.1 a | 20.2 ± 0.2 b | 20.0 ± 0.1 b | 22.5 ± 0.5 c | 23.5 ± 0.1 d | 16.1 ± 0.1 a | 16.87 ± 0.5 b | 22.4 ± 0.1 c | 17.09 ± 0.4b | 24.0 ± 0.1 d | 16.93 ± 0.1 b | 24.3 ± 0.2 e | 17.24 ± 0.5 b | 25.2 ± 0.1 f |
Essential Amino Acids (EAA) | ||||||||||||||
Histidine | 2.6 ± 0.1 a | 5.2 ± 0.2 b | 5.8 ± 0.2 c | 6.7 ± 0.1 d | 6.1 ± 0.1 c | 2.4 ± 0.0 a | 2.9 ± 0.2 bc | 2.9 ± 0.0 bc | 2.9 ± 0.2 bc | 2.7 ± 0.0 b | 3.1 ± 0.0 c | 3.0 ± 0.1 bc | 3.1 ± 0.1 c | 2.9 ± 0.1 bc |
Threonine | 3.2 ± 0.0 a | 8.3 ± 0.3 b | 8.3 ± 0.1 b | 9.7 ± 0.4 c | 10.0 ± 0.1 c | 3.6 ± 0.0 a | 3.9 ± 0.1 b | 4.1 ± 0.0 de | 3.8 ± 0.1 b | 4.2 ± 0.0ef | 4.0 ± 0.1 c | 4.3 ± 0.0 f | 4.1 ± 0.0 cd | 4.2 ± 0.0 ed |
Tyrosine | 4.9 ± 0.1 a | 8.2 ± 0.3 b | 8.3 ± 0.2 b | 9.5 ± 0.5 c | 9.8 ± 0.1 c | 4.3 ± 0.0 a | 4.9 ± 0.1 b | 5.0 ± 0.0 b | 5.0 ± 0.4 b | 4.9 ± 0.1b | 5.1 ± 0.1 b | 5.7 ± 0.1 c | 5.1 ± 0.2 b | 5.2 ± 0.3 b |
Valine | 4.4 ± 0.1 a | 8.5 ± 0.2 b | 8.7 ± 0.2 b | 10.4 ± 0.5 c | 10.5 ± 0.1 c | 4.7 ± 0.1 a | 5.2 ± 0.1 bcd | 4.9 ± 0.1 ab | 5.2 ± 0.0 bcd | 4.9 ± 0.3 ab | 5.5 ± 0.0 cde | 5.6 ± 0.1 de | 5.9 ± 0.0 e | 5.1 ± 0.5 abc |
Methionine | 1.9 ± 0.1 a | 3.2 ± 0.5 b | 4.6 ± 0.3 c | 3.4 ± 0.2 b | 4.1 ± 0.2 bc | 2.1 ± 0.1 ab | 2.5 ± 0.1 abc | 2.6 ± 0.4 abc | 2.9 ± 0.1 c | 2.0 ± 0.4 a | 2.8 ± 0.2 bc | 2.8 ± 0.1 c | 3.1 ± 0.4 c | 2.1 ± 0.3 b |
Phenylalanine | 5.7 ± 0.1 a | 10.9 ± 0.0 b | 11.1 ± 0.2 b | 13.4 ± 0.3 c | 13.1 ± 0.1 c | 5.8 ± 0.0 a | 6.2 ± 0.1 bc | 6.4 ± 0.1 cd | 6.2 ± 0.1 b | 6.7 ± 0.2 ef | 6.5 ± 0.0 de | 6.7 ± 0.1 f | 6.6 ± 0.0 def | 6.6 ± 0.1 def |
Tryptophan | 0.9 ± 0.0 a | 1.3 ± 0.1 b | 1.5 ± 0.0 c | 1.6 ± 0.0 d | 1.8 ± 0.0 d | 0.7 ± 0.0 b | 0.4 ± 0.0 a | 1.0 ± 0.0 c | 0.4 ± 0.1 a | 1.0 ± 0.0 c | 0.4 ± 0.0 a | 1.0 ± 0.1 c | 0.4 ± 0.0 a | 1.0 ± 0.1 c |
Isoleucine | 4.0 ± 0.1 a | 6.8 ± 0.1 b | 6.8 ± 0.1 b | 8.7 ± 0.3 c | 8.4 ± 0.2 c | 4.1 ± 0.1 a | 4.4 ± 0.1 abc | 4.1 ± 0.1 a | 4.4 ± 0.1 abc | 4.0 ± 0.3 a | 4.7 ± 0.0 cd | 4.6 ± 0.0 bc | 5.1 ± 0.0 d | 4.3 ± 0.5 ab |
Leucine | 8.2 ± 0.2 a | 14.2 ± 0.2 b | 14.3 ± 0.2 b | 16.9 ± 0.8 c | 17.4 ± 0.2 c | 8.4 ± 0.0 a | 8.9 ± 0.2 bc | 8.9 ± 0.0 bc | 8.7 ± 0.1 b | 9.1 ± 0.1 cd | 9.2 ± 0.0 cd | 9.6 ± 0.2 e | 9.5 ± 0.0 e | 9.3 ± 0.2 de |
Lysine | 2.5 ± 0.0 a | 10.9 ± 0.8 bc | 10.2 ± 0.2 b | 12.4 ± 0.4 d | 12.1 ± 0.1 cd | 2.0 ± 0.1 a | 3.4 ± 0.0 b | 3.6 ± 0.0 c | 3.4 ± 0.1 b | 3.8 ± 0.1 cd | 3.6 ± 0.0 c | 3.9 ± 0.1 d | 3.8 ± 0.1 cd | 3.9 ± 0.1 d |
Total EAAs | 38 | 78 | 80 | 93 | 93 | 39 | 43 | 44 | 43 | 43 | 45 | 47 | 47 | 45 |
Non-Essential Amino Acid (NEAA) | ||||||||||||||
Aspartic acid + asparagine | 4.6 ± 0.0 a | 17.9 ± 0.6 b | 17.7 ± 0.1 b | 20.0 ± 0.7 c | 21.8 ± 0.3 d | 5.2 ± 0.1 a | 6.1 ± 0.2 bc | 6.9 ± 0.1 ef | 5.8 ± 0.1 b | 7.1 ± 0.1 fg | 6.3 ± 0.2 cd | 7.5 ± 0.2 h | 6.7 ± 0.3 de | 7.3 ± 0.1 gh |
Glutamic acid + glutamine | 38.8 ± 0.5 a | 37.8 ± 0.6 a | 37.4 ± 0.3 a | 43.1 ± 1.0 b | 46.7 ± 0.5 c | 38.2 ± 0.3 ab | 38.9 ± 0.8 bc | 38.9 ± 0.5 bc | 38.0 ± 0.2 a | 39.0 ± 0.2 bcd | 39.8 ± 0.2 de | 40.1 ± 0.2 e | 39.2 ± 0.1 cd | 40.2 ± 0.3 e |
Serine | 6.7 ± 0.1 a | 14.5 ± 0.5 b | 14.2 ± 0.1 b | 16.0 ± 0.6 c | 17.6 ± 0.1 d | 6.8 ± 0.1 ab | 7.1 ± 0.0 ab | 7.8 ± 0.1 c | 6.8 ± 0.2 a | 7.9 ± 0.1 c | 7.2 ± 0.1 b | 8.3 ± 0.4 d | 7.2 ± 0.1 ab | 7.9 ± 0.1 c |
Glycine | 4.4 ± 0.0 a | 11.6 ± 0.4 c | 10.7 ± 0.2 b | 12.1 ± 0.2 c | 13.6 ± 0.1 d | 4.6 ± 0.0 a | 4.9 ± 0.2 bc | 5.3 ± 0.1 e | 4.7 ± 0.0 ab | 5.3 ± 0.0 e | 5.0 ± 0.1 cd | 5.4 ± 0.0 e | 5.1 ± 0.1 d | 5.5 ± 0.1 e |
Arginine | 4.2 ± 0.2 a | 19.6 ± 0.7 b | 22.0 ± 0.4 c | 26.3 ± 0.5 d | 23.4 ± 1.0 c | 4.7 ± 0.0 a | 5.8 ± 0.2 c | 6.5 ± 0.0 d | 5.5 ± 0.2 bc | 6.3 ± 0.2 d | 5.8 ± 0.2 c | 6.4 ± 0.0 d | 5.4 ± 0.1 b | 6.4 ± 0.2 d |
Alanine | 3.9 ± 0.1 a | 11.8 ± 0.2 bc | 11.1 ± 0.3 b | 12.5 ± 0.4 c | 14.7 ± 0.4 d | 4.0 ± 0.0 a | 4.4 ± 0.1 a | 5.0 ± 0.1 bc | 4.4 ± 0.0 a | 5.2 ± 0.1 bc | 4.8 ± 0.2 b | 5.7 ± 0.4 bc | 5.2 ± 0.1 c | 5.3 ± 0.2 c |
Proline | 10.3 ± 0.9 c | 5.9 ± 0.4 ab | 5.2 ± 0.1 a | 7.0 ± 0.1 b | 7.7 ± 0.5 b | 11.0 ± 0.6 d | 6.7 ± 0.4 a | 6.3 ± 0.2 a | 8.3 ± 0.4 b | 7.9 ± 0.4 b | 9.9 ± 0.6 c | 8.3 ± 0.1 b | 8.4 ± 0.0 b | 7.7 ± 0.0 b |
Cysteine | 4.6 ± 0.1 a | 6.5 ± 0.2 b | 6.3 ± 0.3 b | 7.1 ± 0.3 bc | 7.7 ± 0.1 c | 3.9 ± 0.0 a | 4.1 ± 0.1 ab | 4.4 ± 0.1 abc | 4.3 ± 0.5 abc | 4.4 ± 0.2 bc | 4.1 ± 0.2 ab | 4.7 ± 0.2 c | 4.0 ± 0.0 ab | 4.7 ± 0.1 c |
Total NEAAs | 77 | 126 | 125 | 144 | 153 | 78 | 78 | 82 | 78 | 83 | 83 | 86 | 81 | 85 |
3.3. Mineral Contribution to Popular Reference Intake/Recommended Dietary Allowances (PRI/RDAs) and Prediction of Mineral Bioavailability
Fatty Acid | Raw Materials | Bread Formula | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wheat (W) | Seeds (CWS) | Whole Flour (CWF) | Semi-Defatted Flour (CSDF) | Chia Low-Fat Flour (CLFF) | Control (WB) | Chia Seeds (CWSB) | Chia Whole Flour (CWFB) | Chia Semi-Defatted Flour (CSDFB) | Chia Low-Fat Flour (CLFFB) | |||||
5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | |||||||
Lipids, % d.m. | 2.09 ± 0.3 a | 39.3 ± 1.3 d | 41.5 ± 2.3 d | 20.6 ± 0.7 c | 13.5 ± 0.2 b | 1.78 ± 0.1 bc | 2.88 ± 0.1 de | 3.5 ± 0.0 e | 1.44 ± 0.2 abc | 1.88 ± 0.01 c | 1.39 ± 0.15 ab | 1.44 ± 0.3 abc | 1.14 ± 0.02 a | 1.68 ± 0.1 bc |
∑ SFA | 0.53 | 3.36 | 4.33 | 2.16 | 1.23 | 0.54 | 0.58 | 0.61 | 0.49 | 0.60 | 0.54 | 0.52 | 0.44 | 0.50 |
Palmitic acid (C16:0) | 0.48 ± 0.00 a | 2.11 ± 0.04 d | 2.65 ± 0.12 e | 1.34 ± 0.05 c | 0.83 ± 0.05 b | 0.38 ± 0.00 abc | 0.43 ± 0.01 c | 0.43 ± 0.02 bc | 0.39 ± 0.02 abc | 0.43 ± 0.03 bc | 0.40 ± 0.02 bc | 0.39 ± 0.02 abc | 0.35 ± 0.02 a | 0.38 ± 0.04 ab |
Stearic acid (C18:0) | 0.02 ± 0.02 a | 1.08 ± 0.00 d | 1.46 ± 0.10 e | 0.72 ± 0.00 c | 0.40 ± 0.02 b | 0.14 ± 0.01 efg | 0.13 ± 0.00 def | 0.15 ± 0.02 g | 0.09 ± 0.00 ab | 0.15 ± 0.01 fg | 0.12 ± 0.01 cde | 0.11 ± 0.01 cd | 0.07 ± 0.00 a | 0.10 ± 0.00 bc |
Arachidic acid (C20:0) | 0.02 ± 0.00 a | 0.12 ± 0.00 c | 0.15 ± 0.01 d | 0.07 ± 0.00 b | n.d. | 0.02 ± 0.00 c | 0.01 ± 0.00 bc | 0.02 ± 0.00 c | 0.01 ± 0.00 abc | 0.01 ± 0.00 bc | 0.01 ± 0.00 abc | 0.01 ± 0.00 abc | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 ab |
Behenic acid (C22:0) | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.05 ± 0.01 c | 0.07 ± 0.07 c | 0.03 ± 0.00 b | n.d. | n.d. | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | n.d. | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 a |
∑ MUFA | 0.77 | 4.63 | 5.93 | 2.12 | 0.72 | 0.78 | 0.47 | 0.80 | 0.35 | 0.54 | 0.43 | 0.44 | 0.25 | 0.51 |
Elaidic acid (C18:1n9t) | 0.15 ± 0.06 b | 0.81 ± 0.02 c | 0.97 ± 0.09 d | 0.27 ± 0.02 b | n.d. | 0.10 ± 0.01 cd | 0.10 ± 0.01 cd | 0.17 ± 0.00 f | 0.06 ± 0.00 b | 0.12 ± 0.01 e | 0.09 ± 0.01 c | 0.11 ± 0.01 d | 0.03 ± 0.00 a | 0.10 ± 0.01 cd |
dOleic acid (C18:1n9c) | 0.62 ± 0.13 a | 3.82 ± 0.08 d | 4.96 ± 0.43 e | 1.85 ± 0.13 c | 0.72 ± 0.05 b | 0.68 ± 0.03 e | 0.37 ± 0.03 cd | 0.63 ± 0.02 e | 0.29 ± 0.01 b | 0.42 ± 0.04 d | 0.34 ± 0.03 bc | 0.33 ± 0.00 bc | 0.22 ± 0.00 a | 0.41 ± 0.03 d |
∑ PUFA | 0.79 | 12.1 | 13.3 | 9.37 | 6.61 | 0.36 | 0.7 | 1.27 | 0.6 | 0.44 | 0.39 | 0.48 | 0.45 | 0.61 |
Linoleic acid (C18:2n6c) | 0.75 ± 0.01 a | 3.02 ± 0.07 c | 3.81 ± 0.33 d | 2.61 ± 0.18 c | 1.93 ± 0.12 b | 0.34 ± 0.02 a | 0.36 ± 0.01 ab | 0.65 ± 0.03 c | 0.43 ± 0.12 ab | 0.31 ± 0.09 a | 0.32 ± 0.00 a | 0.37 ± 0.01 ab | 0.40 ± 0.08 ab | 0.54 ± 0.06 bc |
α-Linolenic acid (C18:3n3) | 0.04 ± 0.00 a | 9.09 ± 0.20 d | 9.52 ± 0.83 d | 6.76 ± 0.46 c | 4.68 ± 0.29 b | 0.02 ± 0.00 a | 0.34 ± 0.00 f | 0.62 ± 0.02 g | 0.17 ± 0.00 e | 0.13 ± 0.03 de | 0.07 ± 0.01 bc | 0.11 ± 0.01 cd | 0.05 ± 0.00 ab | 0.07 ± 0.01 bc |
PUFA:SFA Ratio | 1.3:1 | 3.6:1 | 3.1:1 | 4.3:1 | 5.4:1 | 0.66 | 1.21 | 2.1 | 1.22 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.92 | 1.0 | 1.34 |
ω-3/ω-6 Ratio Recommended Ratio 1:5 1; 1:8 2 | 1:19 | 3.0:1 | 2.5:1 | 2.6:1 | 2.4:1 | 1:17 | 1:1 | 1:1 | 1:3 | 1:2 | 1:5 | 1:3 | 1:8 | 1:8 |
Parameter * | Units | Wheat Flour (W) | Chia Ingredients | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Seeds (CWS) | Whole Flour (CWF) | Semi-Defatted (CSDF) | Low-Fat (CLFF) | |||||||||
Ash a | g 100 g−1 | 0.6 ± 0.0 a | 2.0 ± 0.4 b | 1.9 ± 0.5 b | 3.5 ± 0.0 c | 4.9 ± 0.1 d | ||||||
Ca a | mg 100 g dm−1 | 106 ± 4 a | 524 ± 4 b | 659 ± 3 c | 860 ± 10 e | 805 ± 14 d | ||||||
Fe a | mg 100 g dm−1 | 1.5 ± 0.1 a | 7.3 ± 0.6 b | 10.3 ± 0.2 d | 8.0 ± 0.2 bc | 8.3 ± 0.0 c | ||||||
Zn a | mg 100 g dm−1 | 1.8 ± 0.0 a | 8.7 ± 1.1 c | 7.0 ± 0.1 b | 7.7 ± 0.2 bc | 8.1 ± 0.1 bc | ||||||
InsP6 | µmol g dm−1 | n.d. | 5.4 ± 1.2 b | 6.6 ± 1.3 c | 5.1 ± 1.0 a | 6.6 ± 0.7 c | ||||||
Control Bread (WB) | Bread with Chia Ingredients | |||||||||||
PRI/RDA, mg day−1 or InsP6/Mineral, mol mol−1 | Seeds (CWSB) | Whole Flour (CWFB) | Semi-Defatted (CSDFB) | Low-Fat (CLFFB) | ||||||||
5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | |||||
Asha | g 100g−1 | 2.0 ± 0.1 a | 2.5 ± 0.1 b | 2.7 ± 0.2 b | 2.4 ± 0.1 b | 2.7 ± 0.2 b | 2.5 ± 0.1 b | 3.2 ± 0.0 c | 2.4 ± 0.2 b | 3.7 ± 0.0 d | ||
Ca Contribution | % | FAO b EFSA b | 1,000 950 | 9 9 | 12 12 | 12 13 | 7 7 | 12 13 | 9 10 | 11 11 | 12 13 | 14 15 |
Fe Contribution | % | FAO b EFSA b | 14/29 11/16 | 10/5 12/9 | 11/5 14/10 | 13/6 17/11 | 12/6 16/11 | 14/7 18/12 | 13/6 17/11 | 14/7 18/12 | 14/7 18/12 | 15/7 19/13 |
Zn Contribution | % | FAO b High bioavailability FAO b Moderate bioavailability FAO b Low bioavailability EFSA b 300 EFSA b 600 EFSA b 900 EFSA b 1200 | 4.2/3 7/4.9 14/9.8 9.4/7.5 11.7/9.3 14/11 16.3/12.7 | 40/56 23/19 12/17 18/22 14/18 12/15 10/13 | 43/61 25/20 13/19 19/24 16/20 13/17 11/14 | 53/75 30/25 16/23 24/30 19/24 16/20 14/18 | 49/69 28/23 15/21 22/27 18/22 15/19 13/16 | 50/70 28/23 15/21 22/28 18/22 15/19 13/16 | 48/67 27/22 14/21 21/27 17/22 14/18 12/16 | 50/70 28/23 15/21 22/28 18/22 15/19 13/16 | 50/69 28/23 15/21 22/28 18/22 15/19 13/16 | 54/75 30/25 16/23 24/30 19/24 16/21 14/18 |
InsP6 | µmol g dm−1 | n.d | 1.2 ± 0.3 a | 4.1 ± 0.8 bc | 0.8 ± 0.3 a | 3.6 ± 0.3 b | 0.9 ± 0.2 a | 3.6 ± 0.4 b | 0.9 ± 0.1 a | 4.8 ± 0.6 c | ||
InsP5 | µmol g dm−1 | n.d | 0.18 ± 0.02 a | 1.1 ± 0.1 c | 0.10 ± 0.05 a | 0.76 ± 0.06 b | 0.12 ± 0.03 a | 0.76 ± 0.13 b | 0.1 ± 0.00 a | 0.83 ± 0.08 b | ||
InsP4 | µmol g dm−1 | n.d | 0.04 ± 0.01 a | 0.38 ± 0.04 e | 0.06 ± 0.09 a | 0.37 ± 0.02 cd | 0.04 ± 0.04 a | 0.33 ± 0.04 be | 0.05 ± 0.05a | 0.30 ± 0.03 b | ||
InsP3 | µmol g dm−1 | n.d | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 0.20 ± 0.03 cd | 0.27 ± 0.09 cd | 0.53 ± 0.02 e | 0.16 ± 0.04 b | 0.30 ± 0.03 d | 0.22 ± 0.05 bc | 0.31 ± 0.04 d | ||
InsP6/Ca c | mol mol−1 | <0.24 | 0 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.09 | |
InsP6/Fe c | mol mol−1 | <1 | 0 | 3.4 | 10.0 | 1.8 | 7.4 | 2.0 | 7.1 | 2.0 | 9.1 | |
InsP6/Zn c | mol mol−1 | <5 | 0 | 3.4 | 9.54 | 1.8 | 8.13 | 2.0 | 7.89 | 2.0 | 9.87 |
3.4. Adequate Intake of Total Dietary Fiber in Breads
3.5. Evaluation of Glycemic Index of Bread
Parameter a | Units | Control (WB) | Bread with Chia Ingredients | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Seeds (CWSB) | Whole Flour (CWFB) | Semi-Defatted (CSDFB) | Low-Fat (CLFFB) | |||||||
5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | 5% | 10% | |||
Total Dietary Fiber a | g/100g d.m. | 4.1 ± 0.1 a | 6.1 ± 0.6 b | 8.7 ± 0.2 c | 6.3 ± 0.2 b | 8.5 ± 0.5 c | 7.0 ± 0.9 b | 8.2 ± 0.1 c | 7.1 ± 0.6 b | 8.5 ± 0.1 c |
Soluble Fiber a | g/100g d.m. | 1.0 ± 0.0 a | 1.7 ± 0.4 ab | 2.4 ± 0.4 bc | 1.5 ± 0.2 ab | 2.8 ± 0.8 c | 1.8 ± 0.3 ab | 3.2 ± 0.3 c | 1.8 ± 0.0 ab | 2.9 ± 0.7 c |
Insoluble Fiber a | g/100g d.m. | 3.1 ± 0.1 a | 4.4 ± 0.5 ab | 5.0 ± 0.2 c | 4.8 ± 0.0 bc | 4.7 ± 0.7 bc | 5.1 ± 0.6 bc | 5.0 ± 0.4 bc | 5.4 ± 0.6 bc | 5.6 ± 0.8 bc |
Soluble/Insoluble Fiber ratio b | g/g | 1:3 | 1:3 | 1:2 | 1:3 | 1:2 | 1:3 | 1:2 | 1:3 | 1:2 |
AIc contribution | % | 16 | 24 | 35 | 25 | 34 | 28 | 33 | 28 | 34 |
Formulation | Total Starch (%) | TSH90 (%) | AUC | GI | GL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chia Ingredient | Level (%) | |||||
Control (W) | 0 | 79.1 ± 1.1 g | 56.9 ± 5.5 c | 5013 | 100 ± 2 d | 57.0 ± 7.1 e |
Chia Seeds (CWS) | 5 | 74.5 ± 0.8 de | 57.2 ± 0.0 c | 4720 | 91.6 ± 2.0 c | 52.4 ± 1.6 de |
10 | 71.7 ± 0.6 ab | 48.1 ± 0.4 ab | 3712 | 80.5 ± 3.1 ab | 38.7 ± 1.7 abc | |
Whole Chia Flour (CWF) | 5 | 75.6 ± 0.5 ef | 48.4 ± 0.2 a | 4228 | 86.1 ± 1.8 bc | 41.4 ± 1.5 cd |
10 | 72.6 ± 0.0 b | 42.1 ± 2.8 a | 3215 | 75.0 ± 1.8 a | 31.5 ± 1.0 ab | |
Semi-Defatted Chia Flour (CSDF) | 5 | 74.2 ± 0.4 cd | 51.5 ± 0.8 bc | 4408 | 88.4 ± 2.5 c | 45.5 ± 2.8 de |
10 | 70.7 ± 0.3 a | 45.0 ± 3.0 ab | 3293 | 77.0 ± 1.5 a | 34.7 ± 4.2 abc | |
Low-Fat Chia Flour (CLFF) | 5 | 76.4 ± 0.2 f | 49.2 ± 0.9 abc | 4308 | 87.3 ± 3.0 bc | 42.9 ± 1.3 bcd |
10 | 72.9 ± 0.7 bc | 43.8 ± 3.0 ab | 3213 | 76.3 ± 3.0 a | 29.9 ± 5.5 a |
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Chemical Compounds Studied in This Article
Abbreviations
References
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Miranda-Ramos, K.; Millán-Linares, M.C.; Haros, C.M. Effect of Chia as Breadmaking Ingredient on Nutritional Quality, Mineral Availability, and Glycemic Index of Bread. Foods 2020, 9, 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050663
Miranda-Ramos K, Millán-Linares MC, Haros CM. Effect of Chia as Breadmaking Ingredient on Nutritional Quality, Mineral Availability, and Glycemic Index of Bread. Foods. 2020; 9(5):663. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050663
Chicago/Turabian StyleMiranda-Ramos, Karla, Ma. Carmen Millán-Linares, and Claudia Monika Haros. 2020. "Effect of Chia as Breadmaking Ingredient on Nutritional Quality, Mineral Availability, and Glycemic Index of Bread" Foods 9, no. 5: 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050663