Next Article in Journal
Early Warnings by Liver Organoids on Short- and Long-Chain PFAS Toxicity
Next Article in Special Issue
Copper Monitoring in Vineyard Soils of Central Italy Subjected to Three Antifungal Treatments, and Effects of Sub-Lethal Copper Doses on the Earthworm Eisenia fetida
Previous Article in Journal
Male Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction: An Underrepresented Endpoint in Toxicology Research
Previous Article in Special Issue
A Scientometric Study on Industrial Effluent and Sludge Toxicity
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Toxics
Volume 10
Issue 2
10.3390/toxics10020090
toxics-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effect of Combined Soil Amendment on Immobilization of Bioavailable As and Pb in Paddy Soil

by
Young-Kyu Hong
1,
Jin-Wook Kim
1,
Sang-Phil Lee
2,
Jae-E. Yang
2,* and
Sung-Chul Kim
1,*
1
Department of Bio-Environmental Chemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
2
Department of Biological Environment, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxics 2022, 10(2), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020090
Submission received: 10 January 2022 / Revised: 4 February 2022 / Accepted: 14 February 2022 / Published: 16 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of Contaminants in Soil and Wastewater)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Heavy metal pollution in soil can have detrimental effects on soil ecosystems and human health. In situ remediation techniques are widely used to reduce the bioavailable fractions of heavy metals in soil. The main objective of this study was to examine the reduction of the bioavailable fractions of As and Pb in paddy soil with artificial lightweight material (ALM) manufactured from recycled materials. A total of four treatments, including a control (no amendment), ALM10 (10% of ALM in soil), ALM10+L (10% ALM combined with 0.5% lime), and ALM10+FeO (10% ALM combined with 0.5% FeO), were applied to paddy fields, and rice (Oryza sativa L.) was cultivated after 32 weeks. The highest reduction efficiencies for the bioavailable fractions of As and Pb in soil were observed in the ALM10+FeO (52.8%) and ALM10+L treatments (65.7%), respectively. The uptake of As decreased by 52.1% when ALM10+FeO was applied to paddy soil, and that of Pb decreased by 79.7% when ALM10+L was applied. Correlation analysis between bioavailable heavy metals in soil and soil chemical properties showed that soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), P2O5, and soil organic matter (SOM) were the main factors controlling the mobility and bioavailability of As and Pb. Overall, the efficiencies of As and Pb reduction increased synergistically in both soil and plants when FeO and lime were combined with the ALM. In future studies, long-term monitoring is necessary to examine the longevity of soil amendments.

1. Introduction

Heavy metal pollution in soil is a critical issue worldwide, particularly in agricultural fields due to food safety concerns [1,2,3,4]. Various sources can contribute to the release of heavy metals into the environment, including industrial areas [5], smelting activities [6,7], and abandoned mines [8,9,10]. Heavy metal pollution in soil or water can be a concern because of its toxicity, persistency, bioaccumulation, and leaching into groundwater [11].
The bioavailable fraction of heavy metals differs from the total heavy metal concentration. The total heavy metal concentration can be used to determine the level of soil contamination, whereas the bioavailable fraction of heavy metals can provide information on the mobility and bioavailability of the heavy metals in soil [12,13,14,15]. Various chemical extractants have been used to estimate the bioavailable fraction of heavy metals in soil. The sequential extraction method is divided into different fractions, such as exchangeable fraction, bound to carbonate fraction, bound to Fe-Mn oxide fraction, bound to organic fraction, and residual fraction depending on ionic strength of the extractants [16]. Among the five different fractions, the exchangeable and bound to carbonate fractions are considered to be the bioavailable fractions of heavy metals [17]. Other extractant includes the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) for conducting ecological risk assessments, Mehlich-3, EDTA, CaCl2, and NH4NO3 [18,19,20,21,22,23].
The application of chemical amendments or adsorbents is a common technique for heavy metal remediation in soil. The main purpose of applying chemical amendments to soil is to immobilize heavy metals, thereby reducing their mobility and bioavailability in soil [24,25,26,27,28,29,30]. Many studies have tried to find amendments or adsorbents that are low cost and have a high remediation efficiency, such as lime, steel slag, coal ash, biochar, and red mud [12,13,31,32,33,34]. Soil amendments have different mechanisms of heavy metal reduction; their reduction efficiencies vary depending on their characteristics and the soil environment. For example, soil pH is one of the factors controlling the mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals. As the soil pH increases, the concentrations of cationic heavy metals in the soil, such as Cd2+, Pb2+, Pb2+, and Cu2+ decrease, while the concentration of As increases [12,35,36]. In addition, soil organic matter (SOM) plays an important role in immobilizing the bioavailable fractions of heavy metals. SOM has a high affinity for heavy metals with various functional groups and forms precipitates [31,37,38]. Iron-based materials including iron oxide and zero valent iron have also been used for heavy metal remediation due to their high reactivity, large surface area, and sorption ability [27,35].
Paddy soils provide a unique environment in which anaerobic conditions are maintained during flood periods. Soils with anaerobic conditions have different characteristics than those with aerobic conditions. Prolonged flood conditions in paddy soils can change the microbial activity in soils owing to the anaerobic fermentation of SOM [37]. Under anaerobic conditions, reducing the redox potential can cause the soil pH to become neutral regardless of whether the soil was previously was acidic or alkaline [39]. Consequently, the mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals in paddy soil are different from those of upland soil in terms of the formation of chemical complexes. For example, sulfide, a reduced form of sulfate, can form a metal sulfide complex [40].
Heavy metals including arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) can be accumulated in rice (Oryza sativa L.) and cause adverse effects on human health such as cancer, cardiovascular, neurological, and respiratory disease [41]. Heavy metal concentration in paddy soil can be varied depending on the source of pollutants. When groundwater irrigation was the source of as in paddy soil, the concentration of As in soil was ranged 3.1–61.04 mg kg−1 in Bangladesh, India, Vietnam, and Nepal [42,43,44]. Mine deposition or industrial wastewater can also be a source of As in paddy soil and concentration of As in soil was ranged 2.5–172.07 mg kg−1 in China and 3.05–34.0 mg kg−1 in Korea [45,46]. The concentration of Pb in paddy soil was also varied depending on the pollutant source and ranged 24.8–1,486 mg kg−1 when mine waste, groundwater, and irrigation surface water were sources of pollutants in paddy soil [34,47,48].
Coal plant by-product such as fly ash and bottom ash has been used for heavy metal remediation in soil because of high porosity and large specific surface area [49]. However, fly ash and bottom ash have a disadvantage in terms of low efficiency for heavy metal remediation in soil when they are used as an original form. For this reason, modification of coal plant by-products such as a hydrothermal method or synthesizing with zeolite adsorbent has been studied to enhance the efficiency of heavy metal remediation [50,51,52,53].
The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of recycled waste materials, named artificial lightweight material (ALM), as adsorbents of heavy metal in paddy fields. In addition, ALM combined with FeO and lime was examined for its synergetic effects on the reduction of bioavailable fractions of heavy metals in soil and crops.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Soil Amendments

The main soil amendment, named “Artificial Lightweight Material (ALM),” was provided by a coal power plant located in Incheon province, South Korea. To manufacture ALM, 20% bottom ash, 50% low-quality unburned carbon, and 30% dredging sand were mixed, heated to a temperature of 550–600 °C, cooled to 25 °C, and heated again to 1100–1200 °C in a heating chamber. To evaluate the effects of different combinations of soil amendments, ALM was applied with either 0.5% lime (ALM10+L) or 0.5% iron oxide (ALM10+FeO) in a paddy field. Lime was purchased from a commercially available market, and iron oxide was purchased from Sigma Aldrich.

2.2. Determining Application Rate of Soil Amendment

Prior to determining the application rate of ALM in the field, sorption batch experiments were conducted for As and Pb. One hundred mL of each stock solution (100 mg L−1), made with NaAsO2 and Pb(NO3)2, was mixed with three different ALM ratios (5%, 10%, and 20% (w/v)) in a 250 mL flask. The flask was shaken at 120 rpm for 48 h, centrifuged at 3000× g for 5 min, and filtered through a 0.45 μm filter paper for ICP-OES analysis. The sorption efficiency of each ALM ratio was determined by calculating the difference between the initial concentration of metals and the remaining concentration in the solution.

2.3. Field Experiment Setup

A total of seven, 10 m × 6 m (L × W) plots were constructed in a paddy field and arranged in a completely randomized block design. A 15 cm high guard row was built around each plot to prevent cross-contamination. Each plot was subjected to the following treatments: Control: no amendment; ALM10: ALM 10% (w/w); ALM10+L: ALM 10% + 0.5% lime; ALM10+FeO: ALM10% + 0.5% FeO. The plots were thoroughly plowed to make the soil homogeneous and equilibrated for 8 weeks without water supply. The plots were then flooded with water containing trace concentrations of heavy metals (data not shown). A week after flooding, two stands of 50-day old seedling with 3–4 plants in each stand were transplanted, and the flooded condition was maintained for 28 weeks. After 3 weeks of drying, rice was harvested. The rice cultivar named “Oh-Dae”, Oryza sativa L., was selected for the experiment as it is a common rice cultivar in the local area. During rice cultivation, conventional cultivation practices, fertilization, and weed control using pesticides were conducted.

2.4. Soil and Plant Sampling

Soil samples were collected at 0, 8, 16, and 32 weeks after soil amendment application. Five soil samples were collected from different locations within the treatment area using a hand auger at a depth of 20 cm. These five soil samples were thoroughly mixed to form one composite soil sample, which was placed in a plastic sample bag. The homogenized soil sample was air-dried at room temperature (25 °C) and passed through a 2 mm and then a 0.15 mm sieve for chemical and heavy metal analysis.
Every third stand of rice sample from each treatment plot was collected and air-dried at room temperature (25 °C) until the moisture reached approximately 15%. The rice grains were separated from the plants, and 100 rice grains in each treatment were weighed for growth comparison.

2.5. Chemical and Heavy Metal Analysis in Soil and Plant

Soil pH (H2O 1:5 w/v) and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured using a pH meter (MP220, Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA) and EC meter (S230, Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA) after shaking 10 g of soil and 50mL of distilled water for 1 h. Soil organic matter (SOM), available P2O5, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were measured following the Walkley–Black, Bray No1, and ammonium acetate exchange methods and are summarized in Table 1.
Both As and Pb were extracted by digesting the soil sample with aqua regia (HNO3:HCl (v/v) = 1:3) in a heating block (Block Heating Sample Preparation System, Ctrl-M Science). The bioavailable fractions of the heavy metals in the soil were extracted with the Mehlich-3 extractant (M3).
Digestion of rice grains was conducted in a heating block for 2 h after 24 h of stagnation in an HNO3 solution. The heavy metal concentrations were measured using an ICP-OES (ICAP 7000series, Thermo Fisher, Waltham, MA, USA). For quality assurance and quality control purposes, blank and spiked samples were measured every 50 samples. In addition, certified reference material for heavy metal contaminated soil (BAM, Germany) was analyzed, and the mean recovery ratios for As and Pb were 102% and 98%, respectively. All glassware and polyethylene bottles were soaked overnight in a 0.5% HNO3 solution and rinsed with deionized water before the experiment. The total content of organic carbon (TOC) and nitrogen (TN) of artificial light material was measured with an elemental analyzer (EA1112, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA).

2.6. Statistical Analysis

All measurements were conducted in triplicate, and statistical analysis (ANOVA test) was performed using SPSS software (Version 20.0) [54]. The ANOVA test was conducted using Tukey’s method at a significance level of p < 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Properties of ALM and Paddy Soil

Properties of artificial light material (ALM) are summarized in Table 1. Artificial light material has alkaline properties, a high surface area, and low density. A previous study compared the chemical properties and surface area of ALM to those of bottom ash and showed that ALM had a larger surface area than bottom ash owing to its higher porosity [41]. The main reason for this difference in the morphology of ALM is the hydrothermal treatment of the bottom ash. During the hydrothermal or sintering process of bottom ash, SiO2 or Al-containing materials are dissolved, and more porous media can be formed in ALM [55]. In addition, Ca-containing bottom ash is co-precipitated during the sintering process, increasing the alkalinity of ALM [56]. The concentration of As and Pb in ALM was 1.26 and 7.41 mg kg−1 and we could expect that application of ALM had minimal effect on heavy metal pollution in paddy soil.
The initial chemical properties of the paddy fields are shown in Table 2. Soil pH was close to neutral. The EC (<2.0 dS m−1), SOM (2.0–4.0%), P2O5 (80–120 mg kg−1), and CEC (10–15 cmol kg−1) were in the optimum range for crop growth set by the Rural Development Agency in Korea. However, the total heavy metal concentration in paddy fields exceeded the threshold value set by the Ministry of Environment in Korea, except for that of Cu. In particular, the concentration of As was approximately 14 times higher than the threshold value, indicating that the study area was highly polluted with As.

3.2. Determining Optimum Application Rate of Amendments

An aqueous batch experiment was conducted to determine the optimum application rate of soil amendments. Three different ratios (5, 10, and 20% w/v) of ALM were added to a solution containing 100 mg L−1 of As and Pb. The sorption efficiency was calculated by measuring the heavy metal concentration in the solution at each time interval for 24 h (Figure 1).
For both As and Pb, the sorption efficiency increased as the amount of added ALM increased. The highest sorption efficiency was observed when 20% of ALM was added to the solution (24.1% for As and 99.9% for Pb). However, the optimum application rate of ALM in soil was determined to be 10% because of the high pH of ALM. In addition, the sorption efficiencies for As and Pb were 17.9% and 96.8%, respectively, when 10% of ALM was applied in the solution, indicating that there was no significant difference in sorption efficiency between the 10% and 20% application of ALM.

3.3. Changes of Chemical Properties in Paddy Soil after Application of Amendments

Soil pH, EC, SOM, P2O5, and CEC measured immediately after harvesting (32 weeks after sowing) are summarized in Table 3. Soil pH in all treatments, including the control, was close to neutral, and a slight decrease in soil pH was observed after applying the amendments. Application of ALM 10% had no significant effect on the chemical properties of the soil except available P2O5 decreasing by 29.9% and the addition of lime increased the CEC of the soil by 23.5% compared to the control. In the case of FeO addition, the SOM and CEC decreased by 23.8% and 30.2%, respectively, compared to the control. Decreasing availability of P2O5 in the ALM10 application could be contributed by the high porosity of ALM and mixing lime and FeO with ALM may cause decreasing sorption site for phosphorus.

3.4. Effect of Amendments on Bioavailability of Heavy Metals in Soil

The total heavy metal concentration has limited utility in evaluating the mobility or bioavailability of heavy metals in soil because of matrix complexity [37,57]. For this reason, various extractants are used to estimate the bioavailability of heavy metals in soil. Mehlich-3 (M3) extractant was used in this study. The M3 extractant has been commonly used to estimate the bioavailability and mobility of heavy metals in soil and plants [15,58,59]. The concentrations of As and Pb in the soil extracted with M3 are summarized in Table 4. After the application of the amendments, the bioavailable fractions of heavy metals significantly decreased compared to those of the control. When ALM10 was applied to the soil in paddy fields, the reduction efficiencies for the bioavailable fractions were 22.7% for As and 52.4% for Pb. However, the highest reduction efficiencies for As (52.8%) and Pb (65.7%) were observed when ALM10 was combined with FeO and lime.
A previous study revealed that the main heavy metal removal mechanism of ALM in an aqueous solution was either chemical precipitation or complexation with oxygen and sulfur [32]. In the case of Cd and Pb, ALM formed complexes using its –OH, -CO3, -O, and –S functional groups, and Cd(OH)2, CdCO3, PbS, and PbO were formed at the surface of ALM. When ALM was combined with FeO, a synergetic reduction effect was observed for As in the soil. Aftabtalab et al. (2022) outlined that the bioavailable fraction of As in soil is highly related to dissolved organic matter (DOM) and FeO concentrations. The As in soil is typically removed by sorption onto the surface of metal oxides, with FeO being one of the main chemical species present [35]. In addition, DOM strongly interacts with FeO and consequently affects the mobility and bioavailability of As in soil. A previous study also revealed that As sorption onto iron oxide (α-γ-Fe2O3), crystalline iron oxide, and various other forms of iron oxide occur in the presence of DOM [60,61].
In the case of lime addition combined with ALM, increased soil pH is one of the main reasons for the reduction in the concentration of bioavailable Pb. The addition of lime as an amendment increases soil pH. This increases the negative charges on the surface of the soil; consequently, the sorption efficiencies of cationic heavy metals such as Pb, and Cd are increased [13,62]. In addition, under anaerobic conditions during flood periods in paddy soils, SO42− can contribute to the removal of Pb from the soil. Cao et al. (2011) and Wang et al. (2015) observed that SO42− can form complexes with Pb2+ in soil solution and form precipitates such as Pb2(SO4)O and Pb4(CO3)2(SO4)(OH)2 [31,33]. Although our study did not measure the SO42− concentrations in soil, we may assume that SO42− contributed to the removal of Pb from anaerobic conditions of paddy soil.

3.5. Heavy Metal Accumulation in Rice

The concentrations of accumulated As and Pb in rice subjected to different treatments are summarized in Table 5. A significantly lower concentration of As compared to the control was observed when ALM10 and ALM10+FeO were applied to the soil. The highest reduction efficiency was observed with the ALM10+FeO treatment (52.1%), followed by the ALM10 treatment (31.3%). All three treatments reduced the bioavailable fraction of Pb in rice. The highest reduction efficiency was observed with the ALM10+L treatment (79.7%), followed by the ALM10+FeO treatment (71.5%) and the ALM10 treatment (62.0%). Comparing the reduced concentrations of As and Pb in rice, a higher reduction efficiency of Pb was observed than that of As in all three treatments. The reduction efficiency of bioavailable As and Pb ranged from 13.0–52.1% to 62.0–79.7%, respectively.
The bioaccumulation mechanisms of As and Pb are different [4,63]. Bioaccumulation of As in rice mainly occurs via the phosphate transporter for As(V) and nodulin 26 type-intrinsic proteins for As (III), along with plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIP) or tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIP). In anaerobic conditions, such as those in the subsurface of paddy soil, microbial respiration can convert inorganic As to methylated-As. In this case, aquaporin channels used as silicate transporters are the main translocation pathways for methylated-As in rice [2]. In the case of Pb, most of the absorbed bioavailable Pb is accumulated at the surface of root cells in the form of iron plaque [34]. Iron plaque has a high functional group sorption capacity and promotes the immobilization of Pb [64]. In addition, the main ionic form of Pb, Pb2+, forms immobilized precipitates such as 2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2 and Fe-ferri-hydrite in the root. This inhibits the translocation of Pb from root to grain [47].
After harvesting the rice, the weight of 100 grains was measured (data is in Supplementary Table S1). Compared to the control (3.03 g), the weight of rice grain was reduced 1.9–6.6% when the amendment was applied in the plot. However, no significant difference was observed for rice grain weight in each plot.

3.6. Correlation Analysis between Chemical Properties and Heavy Metal Concentration in Soil

The bioavailable fractions of As and Pb extracted with M3 in soil were analyzed to examine their correlation with soil chemical properties, the results are summarized in Table 6. Soil chemical properties can greatly impact the uptake of heavy metals from soil to crop systems [65]. Soil pH, EC, P2O5, and SOM were significantly correlated with the bioavailable fraction of As. This result agrees with that of Zhou et al. (2014), who found that soil pH and CEC are the main factors controlling the immobilization of bioavailable heavy metals in soil [57]. The cationic forms of heavy metals such as Pb2+, Cd2+, and Pb2+ were reduced when soil pH and CEC were increased. Our results also showed a significant negative correlation between Pb and soil pH (p < 0.01). Although no significant difference was observed between CEC and Pb concentration in soil, a negative correlation indicates that when CEC was higher, a lower bioavailable fraction of Pb was measured. Therefore, we concluded that soil pH was the main factor contributing to the reduction of the bioavailable fraction of Pb in this study through surface complexation reaction of the cationic form of heavy metals and possibly, ionic exchange or metal-binding exchange mechanisms [41,66].
In the case of the bioavailable fraction of As, the opposite correlation to Pb was observed, except for SOM and P2O5. A significant positive correlation was observed between As and soil pH and, EC. CEC also showed a slight positive correlation with As, but it was insignificant. However, a significantly negative correlation was observed between SOM and the bioavailable fraction of As in soil. This result indicates that as soil pH, EC, and CEC concentration increased, the bioavailable fraction of As in the soil also increased. In addition, higher SOM and P2O5 led to lower As concentrations in the soil. This result agrees with a previous study showing that a high SOM concentration and low soil pH can contribute to reducing the bioavailable fraction of As in paddy soil [1,2,35,38,67]. In the case of P2O5, phosphorus has a similar chemical behavior and uptake pattern. Furthermore, As and P2O5 can be competitive for sorption sites on sorbent [68]. Those properties might impact a negative correlation between bioavailable As concentration and P2O5 concentration in soil.

4. Conclusions

ALM produced from recycled waste, bottom ash, unburned coal, and dredged sand was examined for heavy metal remediation in soil. The application of ALM combined with FeO and lime was examined to determine their synergetic effects in reducing the bioavailable fraction of heavy metals. When ALM was applied to paddy fields, the bioavailable fractions of As and Pb decreased by 22.7% and 52.4%, respectively. However, when ALM was combined with FeO and lime, the reduction efficiencies of As and Pb significantly increased by 52.8% and 65.7%, respectively, compared to those in the control. In addition, the uptake of As and Pb also decreased by 52.1% and 79.7%, respectively, when ALM was combined with FeO and lime.
Correlation analysis showed that soil pH, EC, P2O5, and SOM were the main factors that reduced the bioavailable fractions of heavy metals, and opposing correlations were observed for As and Pb. When the soil pH and EC increased, the reduction efficiency of As decreased, whereas the reduction efficiency of Pb increased as the soil pH and EC decreased. In the case of SOM, As and Pb concentrations decreased when SOM concentration was increased.
Although the main reduction mechanism was not confirmed, the increases in soil pH, EC, and CEC concentrations may affect to reduce the heavy metal concentrations in the soil through ionic exchange and chemical complexation. In addition, combining FeO and lime with ALM showed a synergetic effect in reducing the bioavailable fractions of As and Pb in soil. However, we have not examined the longevity of applied amendments in the field and in the future, long-term monitoring of the mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals should be conducted to assess the longevity of amendments in soil.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/toxics10020090/s1, Table S1: Weight of 100 rice grain measured after harvesting.

Author Contributions

S.-C.K., conceptualization and supervision; J.-E.Y., funding acquisition, supervision, design of work, revising the manuscript; J.-W.K., writing—original draft preparation and formal analysis; Y.-K.H., methodology, validation, and formal analysis; S.-P.L., formal analysis. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Korea Ministry of the Environment, grant number 2019002820004.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

This subject is supported by the Korean Ministry of Environment as “The SS Surface soil conservation and management” project, 2019002820004.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Bergqvist, C.; Greger, M. Arsenic accumulation and speciation in plants from different habitats. Appl. Geochem. 2012, 27, 615–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Islam, S.; Rahman, M.M.; Islam, M.R.; Naidu, R. Arsenic accumulation in rice: Consequences of rice genotypes and management practices to reduce human health risk. Environ. Int. 2016, 96, 139–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Kumarathilaka, P.; Seneweera, S.; Meharg, A.; Bundschuh, J. Arsenic accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) is influenced by environment and genetic factors. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 642, 485–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Srivastava, A.K.; Pandey, M.; Ghate, T.; Kumar, V.; Upadhyay, M.K.; Majumdar, A.; Sanjukta, A.K.; Agrawal, A.K.; Bose, S.; Srivastava, S.; et al. Chemical intervention for enhancing growth and reducing grain arsenic accumulation in rice. Environ. Pollut. 2021, 276, 116719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Bartzas, G.; Tsakiridis, P.E.; Komnitsas, K. Nickel industry: Heavy metal(loid)s contamination—Sources, environmental impacts and recent advances on waste valorization. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health 2021, 21, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Zhang, J.; Sun, X.; Deng, J.; Li, G.; Li, Z.; Jiang, J.; Wu, Q.; Duan, L. Emission characteristics of heavy metals from a typical copper smelting plant. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 424, 127311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Xu, L.; Dai, H.; Skuza, L.; Wei, S. Comprehensive exploration of heavy metal contamination and risk assessment at two common smelter sites. Chemosphere 2021, 285, 131350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Zerizghi, T.; Guo, Q.; Tian, L.; Wei, R.; Zhao, C. An integrated approach to quantify ecological and human health risks of soil heavy metal contamination around coal mining area. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 814, 152653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Jiang, C.; Zhao, Q.; Zheng, L.; Chen, X.; Li, C.; Ren, M. Distribution, source and health risk assessment based on the Monte Carlo method of heavy metals in shallow groundwater in an area affected by mining activities, China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2021, 224, 112679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Zhang, H.; Zhang, F.; Song, J.; Tan, M.L.; Kung, H.T.; Johnson, V.C. Pollutant source, ecological and human health risks assessment of heavy metals in soils from coal mining areas in Xinjiang, China. Environ. Res. 2021, 202, 111702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Liang, W.; Wang, G.; Peng, C.; Tan, J.; Wan, J.; Sun, P.; Li, Q.; Ji, X.; Zhang, Q.; Wu, Y.; et al. Recent advances of carbon-based nano zero valent iron for heavy metals remediation in soil and water: A critical review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 426, 127993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Lee, D.S.; Lim, S.S.; Park, H.J.; Yang, H.I.; Park, S.I.; Kwak, J.H.; Choi, W.J. Fly ash and zeolite decrease metal uptake but do not improve rice growth in paddy soils contaminated with Cu and Zn. Environ. Int. 2019, 129, 551–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Li, H.; Xu, H.; Zhou, S.; Yu, Y.; Li, H.; Zhou, C.; Chen, Y.; Li, Y.; Wang, M.; Wang, G. Distribution and transformation of lead in rice plants grown in contaminated soil amended with biochar and lime. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2018, 165, 589–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Suriyagoda, L.D.B.; Dittert, K.; Lambers, H. Mechanism of arsenic uptake, translocation and plant resistance to accumulate arsenic in rice grains. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2018, 253, 23–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Xu, D.-M.; Fu, R.-B.; Wang, J.-X.; Shi, Y.-X.; Guo, X.-P. Chemical stabilization remediation for heavy metals in contaminated soils on the latest decade: Available stabilizing materials and associated evaluation methods—A critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 321, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Tessier, A.; Campbell, P.G.C.; Blsson, M. Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of particulate trace metals. Anal. Chem. 1979, 51, 844–851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Nemati, K.; Abu Bakar, N.K.; Abas, M.R.; Sobhanzadeh, E. Speciation of heavy metals by modified BCR sequential extraction procedure in different depths of sediments from Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia. J. Hazard. Mater. 2011, 192, 402–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Cui, L.; Pan, G.; Li, L.; Bian, R.; Liu, X.; Yan, J.; Quan, G.; Ding, C.; Chen, T.; Liu, Y.; et al. Continuous immobilization of cadmium and lead in biochar amended contaminated paddy soil: A five-year field experiment. Ecol. Eng. 2016, 93, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Dedeke, G.A.; Iwuchukwu, P.O.; Aladesida, A.A.; Afolabi, T.A.; Ayanda, I.O. Impact of heavy metal bioaccumulation on antioxidant activities and DNA profile in two earthworm species and freshwater prawn from Ogun River. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 624, 576–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. He, H.; Tam, N.F.Y.; Yao, A.; Qiu, R.; Li, W.C.; Ye, Z. Growth and Cd uptake by rice (Oryza sativa) in acidic and Cd-contaminated paddy soils amended with steel slag. Chemosphere 2017, 189, 247–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Hu, P.; Yang, B.; Dong, C.; Chen, L.; Cao, X.; Zhao, J.; Wu, L.; Luo, Y.; Christie, P. Assessment of EDTA heap leaching of an agricultural soil highly contaminated with heavy metals. Chemosphere 2014, 117, 532–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Ownby, D.R.; Galvan, K.A.; Lydy, M.J. Lead and zinc bioavailability to Eisenia fetida after phosphorus amendment to repository soils. Environ. Pollut. 2005, 136, 315–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Yan, Y.; Qi, F.; Seshadri, B.; Xu, Y.; Hou, J.; Ok, Y.S.; Dong, X.; Li, Q.; Sun, X.; Wang, L.; et al. Utilization of phosphorus loaded alkaline residue to immobilize lead in a shooting range soil. Chemosphere 2016, 162, 315–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Abad-Valle, P.; Álvarez-Ayuso, E.; Murciego, A.; Pellitero, E. Assessment of the use of sepiolite amendment to restore heavy metal polluted mine soil. Geoderma 2016, 280, 57–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Ahmad, M.; Usman, A.R.A.; Al-Faraj, A.S.; Ahmad, M.; Sallam, A.; Al-Wabel, M.I. Phosphorus-loaded biochar changes soil heavy metals availability and uptake potential of maize (Zea mays L.) plants. Chemosphere 2018, 194, 327–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Bian, R.; Chen, D.; Liu, X.; Cui, L.; Li, L.; Pan, G.; Xie, D.; Zheng, J.; Zhang, X.; Zheng, J.; et al. Biochar soil amendment as a solution to prevent Cd-tainted rice from China: Results from a cross-site field experiment. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 58, 378–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Francisca, F.M.; Glatstein, D.A. Environmental application of basic oxygen furnace slag for the removal of heavy metals from leachates. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 384, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Garau, G.; Castaldi, P.; Santona, L.; Deiana, P.; Melis, P. Influence of red mud, zeolite and lime on heavy metal immobilization, culturable heterotrophic microbial populations and enzyme activities in a contaminated soil. Geoderma 2007, 142, 47–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Hussain Lahori, A.; Zhang, Z.; Guo, Z.; Mahar, A.; Li, R.; Kumar Awasthi, M.; Ali Sial, T.; Kumbhar, F.; Wang, P.; Shen, F.; et al. Potential use of lime combined with additives on (im)mobilization and phytoavailability of heavy metals from Pb/Zn smelter contaminated soils. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017, 145, 313–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Ko, M.-S.; Kim, J.-Y.; Park, H.-S.; Kim, K.-W. Field assessment of arsenic immobilization in soil amended with iron rich acid mine drainage sludge. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 108, 1073–1080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Cao, X.; Ma, L.; Liang, Y.; Gao, B.; Harris, W. Simultaneous immobilization of lead and atrazine in contaminated soils using dairy-manure biochar. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 4884–4889. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Hong, Y.K.; Kim, J.W.; Kim, H.S.; Lee, S.P.; Yang, J.E.; Kim, S.C. Bottom Ash Modification via Sintering Process for Its Use as a Potential Heavy Metal Adsorbent: Sorption Kinetics and Mechanism. Materials 2021, 14, 3060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Wang, Z.; Liu, G.; Zheng, H.; Li, F.; Ngo, H.H.; Guo, W.; Liu, C.; Chen, L.; Xing, B. Investigating the mechanisms of biochar’s removal of lead from solution. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 177, 308–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Xie, T.; Li, Y.; Dong, H.; Liu, Y.; Wang, M.; Wang, G. Effects and mechanisms on the reduction of lead accumulation in rice grains through lime amendment. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2019, 173, 266–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Aftabtalab, A.; Rinklebe, J.; Shaheen, S.M.; Niazi, N.K.; Moreno-Jimenez, E.; Schaller, J.; Knorr, K.H. Review on the interactions of arsenic, iron (oxy)(hydr)oxides, and dissolved organic matter in soils, sediments, and groundwater in a ternary system. Chemosphere 2022, 286, 131790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Wu, C.; Huang, L.; Xue, S.G.; Pan, W.S.; Zou, Q.; Hartley, W.; Wong, M.H. Oxic and anoxic conditions affect arsenic (As) accumulation and arsenite transporter expression in rice. Chemosphere 2017, 168, 969–975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Huang, J.H.; Hsu, S.H.; Wang, S.L. Effects of rice straw ash amendment on Cu solubility and distribution in flooded rice paddy soils. J. Hazard. Mater. 2011, 186, 1801–1807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Yao, A.; Ju, L.; Ling, X.; Liu, C.; Wei, X.; Qiu, H.; Tang, Y.; Morel, J.L.; Qiu, R.; Li, C.; et al. Simultaneous attenuation of phytoaccumulation of Cd and As in soil treated with inorganic and organic amendments. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 250, 464–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Kögel-Knabner, I.; Amelung, W.; Cao, Z.; Fiedler, S.; Frenzel, P.; Jahn, R.; Kalbitz, K.; Kölbl, A.; Schloter, M. Biogeochemistry of paddy soils. Geoderma 2010, 157, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Ma, L.Q.; Dong, Y. Effects of incubation on solubility and mobility of trace metals in two contaminated soils. Environ. Pollut. 2004, 130, 301–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kumarathilaka, P.; Seneweera, S.; Meharg, A.; Bundschuh, J. Arsenic speciation dynamics in paddy rice soil-water environment: Sources, physico-chemical, and biological factors—A review. Water Res 2018, 140, 403–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Panaullah, G.M.; Alam, T.; Hossain, M.B.; Loeppert, R.H.; Lauren, J.G.; Meisner, C.A.; Ahmed, Z.U.; Duxbury, J.M. Arsenic toxicity to rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Bangladesh. Plant Soil 2008, 317, 31–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Shrivastava, A.; Barla, A.; Singh, S.; Mandraha, S.; Bose, S. Arsenic contamination in agricultural soils of Bengal deltaic region of West Bengal and its higher assimilation in monsoon rice. J. Hazard. Mater. 2017, 324, 526–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Dahal, B.M.; Fuerhacker, M.; Mentler, A.; Karki, K.B.; Shrestha, R.R.; Blum, W.E. Arsenic contamination of soils and agricultural plants through irrigation water in Nepal. Environ. Pollut. 2008, 155, 157–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Yun, S.-W.; Baveye, P.C.; Kim, K.-B.; Kang, D.-H.; Lee, S.-Y.; Son, J.; Kim, D.-H.; Yoon, Y.-C.; Yu, C. Effect of postmining land use on the spatial distribution of metal(loid)s and their transport in agricultural soils: Analysis of a case study of Chungyang, South Korea. J. Geochem. Explor. 2016, 170, 157–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Ma, L.; Wang, L.; Jia, Y.; Yang, Z. Accumulation, translocation and conversion of six arsenic species in rice plants grown near a mine impacted city. Chemosphere 2017, 183, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Liu, J.; Ma, X.; Wang, M.; Sun, X. Genotypic differences among rice cultivars in lead accumulation and translocation and the relation with grain Pb levels. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2013, 90, 35–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Liu, K.; Li, C.; Tang, S.; Shang, G.; Yu, F.; Li, Y. Heavy metal concentration, potential ecological risk assessment and enzyme activity in soils affected by a lead-zinc tailing spill in Guangxi, China. Chemosphere 2020, 251, 126415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Xu, D.; Ji, P.; Wang, L.; Zhao, X.; Hu, X.; Huang, X.; Zhao, H.; Liu, F. Effect of modified fly ash on environmental safety of two soils contaminated with cadmium and lead. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2021, 215, 112175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Chiang, Y.W.; Ghyselbrecht, K.; Santos, R.M.; Meesschaert, B.; Martens, J.A. Synthesis of zeolitic-type adsorbent material from municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash and its application in heavy metal adsorption. Catal. Today 2012, 190, 23–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Guo, R.; Yao, W.; Ma, H.; Yuan, J. Two-step hydrothermal synthesis of nano-kaolinite from fly ash: Thermodynamics and mechanism. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 271, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Ji, Z.; Pei, Y. Geopolymers produced from drinking water treatment residue and bottom ash for the immobilization of heavy metals. Chemosphere 2019, 225, 579–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Kobayashi, Y.; Ogata, F.; Nakamura, T.; Kawasaki, N. Synthesis of novel zeolites produced from fly ash by hydrothermal treatment in alkaline solution and its evaluation as an adsorbent for heavy metal removal. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. IBM Cooperation. Statistical Package for Social Sciences; Version 20.0; IBM: Armonk, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  55. Luo, H.; Wu, Y.; Zhao, A.; Kumar, A.; Liu, Y.; Cao, B.; Yang, E.-H. Hydrothermally synthesized porous materials from municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash and their interfacial interactions with chloroaromatic compounds. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 162, 411–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Pena, R.; Guerrero, A.; Goni, S. Hydrothermal treatment of bottom ash from the incineration of municipal solid waste: Retention of Cs(I), Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cr(III). J. Hazard. Mater. 2006, 129, 151–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Zhou, H.; Zhou, X.; Zeng, M.; Liao, B.H.; Liu, L.; Yang, W.T.; Wu, Y.M.; Qiu, Q.Y.; Wang, Y.J. Effects of combined amendments on heavy metal accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) planted on contaminated paddy soil. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2014, 101, 226–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Lewis, C.; Lennon, A.M.; Eudoxie, G.; Sivapatham, P.; Umaharan, P. Plant metal concentrations in Theobroma cacao as affected by soil metal availability in different soil types. Chemosphere 2021, 262, 127749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Mehlich, A. Mehlich 3 soil test rextractant: A modification of Mehlich 2 extractant. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2008, 15, 1409–1416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Bissen, M.; Frimmel, F.H. Arsenic—A review. Part I: Occurrence, toxicity, speciation, mobility. Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 2003, 31, 9–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Stopelli, E.; Duyen, V.T.; Mai, T.T.; Trang, P.T.K.; Viet, P.H.; Lightfoot, A.; Kipfer, R.; Schneider, M.; Eiche, E.; Kontny, A.; et al. Spatial and temporal evolution of groundwater arsenic contamination in the Red River delta, Vietnam: Interplay of mobilisation and retardation processes. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 717, 137143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Bolan, N.; Kunhikrishnan, A.; Thangarajan, R.; Kumpiene, J.; Park, J.; Makino, T.; Kirkham, M.B.; Scheckel, K. Remediation of heavy metal(loid)s contaminated soils—To mobilize or to immobilize? J. Hazard. Mater. 2014, 266, 141–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Sarwar, T.; Khan, S.; Muhammad, S.; Amin, S. Arsenic speciation, mechanisms, and factors affecting rice uptake and potential human health risk: A systematic review. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2021, 22, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Liu, C.Y.; Chen, C.L.; Gong, X.F.; Zhou, W.B.; Yang, J.Y. Progress in research of iron plaque on root surface of wetland plants. Shengtai Xuebao Acta Ecol. Sin. 2014, 34, 2470–2480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  65. Udeigwe, T.K.; Eze, P.N.; Teboh, J.M.; Stietiya, M.H. Application, chemistry, and environmental implications of contaminant-immobilization amendments on agricultural soil and water quality. Environ. Int. 2011, 37, 258–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Peng, J.F.; Song, Y.H.; Yuan, P.; Cui, X.Y.; Qiu, G.L. The remediation of heavy metals contaminated sediment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 161, 633–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Wu, Y.; Zhou, X.-Y.; Lei, M.; Yang, J.; Ma, J.; Qiao, P.-W.; Chen, T.-B. Migration and transformation of arsenic: Contamination control and remediation in realgar mining areas. Appl. Geochem. 2017, 77, 44–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Piracha, M.A.; Ashraf, M.; Shahzad, S.M.; Imtiaz, M.; Arif, M.S.; Rizwan, M.S.; Aziz, A.; Tu, S.; Albasher, G.; Alkahtani, S.; et al. Alteration in soil arsenic dynamics and toxicity to sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in response to phosphorus in different textured soils. Chemosphere 2022, 287, 132406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Toxics 10 00090 g001 550
Figure 1. Reduction efficiency of (a) As and (b) Pb in aqueous solution for determining optimum application rate of amendments.
Figure 1. Reduction efficiency of (a) As and (b) Pb in aqueous solution for determining optimum application rate of amendments.
Toxics 10 00090 g001
Table
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of artificial light material (ALM) used in this experiment.
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of artificial light material (ALM) used in this experiment.
ALM
pH (H2O, 1:5 w/v)8.68 ± 0.11
EC dS m−11.29 ± 0.03
TOC † g kg−145.4 ± 0.4
TN † g kg−10.5 ± 0.1
Surface area m2 g−17.8477
Density g cm−30.82
Heavy metalsAsmg kg−11.26 ± 0.61
Cdmg kg−10.22 ± 0.02
Pbmg kg−17.41 ± 1.37
Cumg kg−15.13 ± 0.05
Znmg kg−114.52 ± 4.49
† TOC and TN are the abbreviations of total organic carbon and total nitrogen.
Table
Table 2. The initial physicochemical properties of paddy soil before the experiment.
Table 2. The initial physicochemical properties of paddy soil before the experiment.
SoilOptimum Range/Threshold Value †
pH(H2O, 1:5 w/v)7.30 ± 0.026.0–7.0
EC §dS m−11.82 ± 0.02<2.0
SOM §%3.12 ± 0.012.5–3.0
P2O5mg kg−183.0 ± 12.580–120
CEC §cmol kg−114.7 ± 0.2310–15
Heavy metalsAsmg kg−1350.9 ± 11.225
Cdmg kg−15.33 ± 0.954
Pbmg kg−1207.5 ± 15.3200
Cumg kg−133.54 ± 5.32150
Znmg kg−1168.9 ± 26.4300
† Optimum range for soil chemical properties and threshold value for heavy metal concentration. § EC, SOM, and CEC are the abbreviation for electric conductivity, soil organic matter, and cationic exchange capacity.
Table
Table 3. Soil chemical properties in paddy field after applying amendment.
Table 3. Soil chemical properties in paddy field after applying amendment.
TreatmentpHECSOMP2O5CEC
dS m−1%mg kg−1cmol kg−1
Control7.29 ± 0.06 a0.88 ± 0.05 b4.15 ± 0.12 a78.2 ± 13.2 a14.62 ± 0.22 b
ALM106.93 ± 0.03 a1.03 ± 0.11 b3.68 ± 0.08 ab54.8 ± 19.4 b13.09 ± 0.18 b
ALM10+L7.11 ± 0.05 a1.28 ± 0.16 a4.08 ± 0.15 a62.4 ± 8.9 ab19.12 ± 0.15 a
ALM10+FeO7.12 ± 0.02 a0.89 ± 0.06 b3.16 ± 0.04 b61.2 ± 17.8 ab10.20 ± 0.17 c
Different letters indicate that the value is significantly different at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 4. Bioavailable fraction of As and Pb in soil after application of amendments.
Table 4. Bioavailable fraction of As and Pb in soil after application of amendments.
TreatmentsAsPb
mg kg−1mg kg−1
Control1.63 ± 0.03 a12.99 ± 0.36 a
ALM101.26 ± 0.06 b6.18 ± 0.26 c
ALM10+L1.51 ± 0.07 ab4.46 ± 0.15 d
ALM10+FeO0.77 ± 0.04 c10.33 ± 0.32 b
Different letters indicate that value is significantly different at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. Concentration of As and Pb in rice grain harvested after the experiment.
Table 5. Concentration of As and Pb in rice grain harvested after the experiment.
TreatmentsAsPb
mg kg−1mg kg−1
Control1.92 ± 0.33 a1.58 ± 0.18 a
ALM101.32 ± 0.17 c0.60 ± 0.04 b
ALM10+L1.67 ± 0.21 b0.32 ± 0.07 c
ALM10+FeO0.92 ± 0.14 d0.45 ± 0.09 bc
Different letters indicate that value is significantly different at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 6. Correlation analysis between bioavailable heavy metals and soil chemical properties.
Table 6. Correlation analysis between bioavailable heavy metals and soil chemical properties.
AsPb
pH0.913 ** (0.001)−0.882 ** (0.001)
EC0.605 * (0.037)−0.723 ** (0.008)
SOM−0.848 ** (0.001)−0.575 (0.051)
P2O5−0.871 ** (0.004)−0.251 (0.061)
CEC0.267 (0.401)−0.031 (0.924)
As1.000−0.693 * (0.012)
Pb 1.000
Pearson correlation coefficient (p-value) is shown. * and ** represent that p value is significant at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hong, Y.-K.; Kim, J.-W.; Lee, S.-P.; Yang, J.-E.; Kim, S.-C. Effect of Combined Soil Amendment on Immobilization of Bioavailable As and Pb in Paddy Soil. Toxics 2022, 10, 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020090

AMA Style

Hong Y-K, Kim J-W, Lee S-P, Yang J-E, Kim S-C. Effect of Combined Soil Amendment on Immobilization of Bioavailable As and Pb in Paddy Soil. Toxics. 2022; 10(2):90. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020090

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hong, Young-Kyu, Jin-Wook Kim, Sang-Phil Lee, Jae-E. Yang, and Sung-Chul Kim. 2022. "Effect of Combined Soil Amendment on Immobilization of Bioavailable As and Pb in Paddy Soil" Toxics 10, no. 2: 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020090

APA Style

Hong, Y. -K., Kim, J. -W., Lee, S. -P., Yang, J. -E., & Kim, S. -C. (2022). Effect of Combined Soil Amendment on Immobilization of Bioavailable As and Pb in Paddy Soil. Toxics, 10(2), 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020090

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop