The Functional Significance of Cardiac Looping: Comparative Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Looped Design of Vertebrate Hearts
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of the Early Morphogenesis of Vertebrate Hearts
Comparative Aspects of Cardiac Looping among Vertebrates
- (1)
- positional and morphological changes along the original dorsoventral heart axis.
- (2)
- positional and morphological changes along the craniocaudal body axis.
- (3)
- positional and morphological changes along the so-called left-right body axis, which lead to a bilaterally asymmetric heart shape. This component may be named “lateral looping” or “chiral looping”.
- (4)
- positional and morphological changes that reduce the degree of lateral/chiral looping reached earlier stages of cardiac looping. This component may be named “final positional adjustments”.
3. Comparative Anatomy of the Looped Design of Mature Vertebrate Hearts
3.1. Comparative Anatomy of the Sigmoid Routing of the Flow Path(s) of Mature Vertebrate Hearts
3.2. Comparative Anatomy of the Bilaterally Asymmetric (Chiral) Routing of the Flow Path(s) of Mature Vertebrate Hearts
3.2.1. Hearts with a Visually Conspicuous Bilateral Asymmetry
3.2.2. Hearts with a Visually Obscured Bilateral Asymmetry
3.2.3. Hearts with a Nearly Perfect Bilateral Symmetry
4. The Functional Significance of the Looped Design of Embryonic and Mature Vertebrate Hearts
4.1. A Closer View on the Functional Design of Embryonic Vertebrate Hearts
4.2. A Closer View on the Functional Design of Mature Vertebrate Hearts
4.2.1. Looping Dictates the Alignments and Separations of the Systemic and Pulmonary Flow Paths
4.2.2. Looping Might Optimize the Cardiac Pumping Efficiency
4.2.3. A Critical Evaluation of the Proposed Functional Advantages of the Sigmoid Routing of the Cardiac Flow Path(s)
Does Looping Really Minimize the Loss of Momentum of the Inflowing Blood?
Does Looping Really Enhance Ventriculoatrial Coupling?
Implications for the Usage of Fishes in Cardiovascular Research
5. Summary and Conclusions
- (1)
- the looped configuration of the flow path of vertebrate hearts is roughly characterized by an s-shaped (sigmoid) component and a bilaterally asymmetric (chiral) component.
- (2)
- the fully looped heart tube of vertebrate embryos regularly shows sigmoid as well as chiral routing of its flow path.
- (3)
- data from physical pump models suggest that the looped design of valveless embryonic heart tubes might improve the pumping efficiency.
- (4)
- among the mature hearts of vertebrates, sigmoid and chiral routing of the flow path(s) is regularly found only in the multi-chambered hearts of lungfish and tetrapods. Here, the bilaterally asymmetric (chiral) anatomy is regarded as the main determinant of the alignment and functional or structural separation of the systemic and pulmonary flow paths.
- (5)
- among the two-chambered hearts of fish, only sigmoid routing of the flow path is a regular feature, while a bilaterally asymmetric (chiral) configuration is not a regular feature. Among fish, we can find species with bilaterally asymmetric hearts as well as species with bilaterally symmetric hearts.
- (6)
- the presence of bilateral symmetry in the mature hearts of some fishes seems to be the consequence of a process of back-rotation of the heart during the post-embryonic period of development.
- (7)
- the presence of a nearly perfect bilateral symmetry in the high-performance hearts of several active fish, suggests that chiral routing of the cardiac flow path may not significantly improve the pumping function of two-chambered hearts. If the pumping function of two-chambered hearts may profit from a looped design, such a benefit should be attributed to the sigmoid routing of the cardiac flow path, which is a feature found in the mature heart of all vertebrates.
- (8)
- the bilaterally asymmetric (chiral) anatomy of some fish hearts seems to represent no more than the solution to a packing problem.
- (9)
- it was frequently stated that the evolution of the vertebrate heart was characterized by an increase in the degree of sigmoid routing of the cardiac flow path(s). The lowest degree was ascribed to the hearts of basal vertebrates (jawless fish). A moderate degree was ascribed to the hearts of jawed fish, while high degrees were ascribed exclusively to the hearts of lungfish and tetrapods. Original data from fish, however, show that, among jawed fish, we can find a spectrum of various degrees of sigmoid routing of the cardiac flow path. This spectrum ranges from low degrees, resulting from an atrial position that is dorso-caudal to the ventricle, to high degrees, resulting from an atrial position that is dorso-cranial to the ventricle. Thus, a high degree of sigmoid routing of the cardiac flow path(s) is not exclusively found in the mature hearts of tetrapods.
- (10)
- it has been postulated that sigmoid routing of the cardiac flow path(s) may produce effects supporting the long-axis displacement of the AVP, while a linear routing of the cardiac flow path(s) may produce effects suppressing the long-axis displacement of the AVP, particularly in the exercising state. Data from snail hearts and physical models cast doubt on the validity of this hypothesis. The relation between the looped design and the pumping function of vertebrate hearts remains an enigma.
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Männer, J. The Functional Significance of Cardiac Looping: Comparative Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Looped Design of Vertebrate Hearts. J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis. 2024, 11, 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd11080252
Männer J. The Functional Significance of Cardiac Looping: Comparative Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Looped Design of Vertebrate Hearts. Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease. 2024; 11(8):252. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd11080252
Chicago/Turabian StyleMänner, Jörg. 2024. "The Functional Significance of Cardiac Looping: Comparative Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Looped Design of Vertebrate Hearts" Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease 11, no. 8: 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd11080252