Fungal–Metal Interactions: A Review of Toxicity and Homeostasis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Fungal–Metal Interactions
Metal | Transport Type | Yeast Transporters | Reference | Filamentous Fungi Transporters | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zinc | Import | Zrt1, Zrt2 | [15,22] | zrfA/B/C, UmZRT1/2, Zip1/2 | [23,24,25,26,27] |
Vacuolar | Cot1, Zrc1 | [20,28] | - | - | |
Vacuole to Cytosol | Zrt3 | [29] | - | - | |
Copper | Import | Ctr1, Ctr3, Fet4, Ctr4, Ctr5, Mfc1 | [30,31,32,33,34,35,36] | CtrA2, CtrC, Ctr1, PaCtr2 | [37,38,39] |
Cytosol to Golgi | Atx1, Ccc2 | [34,40,41,42] | - | - | |
Mitochondrial | Pic2, Cox17 | [21,43,44] | - | - | |
Cytosol to Sod1 | Lys7, Pccs | [45,46] | - | - | |
Mitochondrial Inner Membrane Space to Cytochrome c oxidase | Sco1, Sco2, Cox11 | [42,47,48] | - | - | |
Export | - | - | CrpA | [49] | |
Iron | Import | Fet4, Smf1, Fet3/Ftr1, Fip1, Str3, Shu1, Str1, Str2, Str3 | [50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59] | Fer2 | [60] |
Within the Nucleus | Npb35, Nar1, Cfd1, Cia1 | [61,62] | - | - | |
Vacuolar | Pcl1, Ccc1 | [63,64] | - | - | |
Mangan-ese | Import | Smf1, Smf2, Pho85 | [52,65,66,67] | PcPho84, PcSmfs | [68] |
Mitochondrial | Mtm1 | [69] | PcMtm1 | [68] | |
Cytosol to Golgi Lumen | Pmr1, Gdt1 | [70,71,72] | - | - | |
Cytosol to Endoplasmic Reticulum Lumen | Spf1 | [73] | - | - | |
Vacuolar | Ccc1, Ypk9 | [64,74,75,76] | PcCCC1 | [68] | |
Export | Pmr1, Hip1 | [77,78,79] | PcMnt | [68] | |
Silver | Import | Ctr1 | [80,81] | - | - |
Mitochondrial | Pic2 | [21] | - | - |
1.2. Metal Toxicity and Resistance
Metal | Mechanism of Toxicity in Yeast | Reference | Mechanism of Toxicity in Filamentous Fungi | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Zinc | Interference of synthesis of iron-sulfur clusters | [85,86] | increased chitin deposition within the cell wall, preventing hyphal extension | [87,88] |
Interference in ergosterol biosynthesis | [83] | increased hyphal branching and apical swelling | [88] | |
Cellular leakage, polarization, and increased membrane potential | [83] | interruption of conidia and conidiophore development (interference of reproduction) | [87] | |
Reduced cell wall integrity | [83] | - | - | |
Copper | Reduced ergosterol biosynthesis | [12,89] | Generation of reactive oxygen species | [90] |
Reduced metallothionein activity | [84] | - | - | |
Iron | Interference of vacuolar transport encoding gene CCC1 | [91,92] | Inability to acquire iron | [60,93] |
Manganese | Down-regulation of HTB2, HTA1, HTA1, HTBI, HHF | [94,95] | potentially associated to reduced functioning of manganese peroxidase | [96,97,98] |
Silver | Interference in ergosterol biosynthesis | [80,99,100] | - | - |
Metal | Mechanism of Metal Resistance in Yeast | Reference | Mechanism of Metal Resistance in Filamentous Fungi | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Zinc | Up-regulation of ZRC1 and COT1 | [83,105,106,107,108] | storage of excess zinc in vacuoles and cell walls of spores and hyphae | [109,110] |
- | - | zinc efflux | [111] | |
- | - | zinc metallothioneins | [112] | |
Copper | Up-regulation of CUP1 and CRS5 | [113] | Up-regulation of crpA | [81,114,115,116] |
Down-regulation of FRE1 and FRE7, and CTR1 | [113] | increased production of chelator copper oxalate | [117,118,119] | |
Iron | Up-regulation of CCC1 | [64,120] | Unknown, but could associated with reduction of siderophore biosynthesis | [60,121] |
Expression of plant ferritin genes | [122,123,124] | - | - | |
Manganese | Up-regulation of MNR1 | [65,67,125,126] | Deletion of PcPHO84 | [68] |
Down-regulation of PHO84, SMF1 | [67,125,126] | Expression of PcMNT | [68] | |
Silver | Expression of CUP1-1, CUP1-2 | [81,115,116] | Expression of crpA | [90] |
Down-regulation of PHO84 | [116] | - | - |
2. Fungal–Metal Interactions
2.1. Zinc
2.1.1. Zinc Transport and Homeostasis
2.1.2. Zinc Toxicity
2.1.3. Zinc Tolerance and Resistance
2.2. Copper
2.2.1. Copper Transport and Homeostasis
2.2.2. Copper Toxicity
2.2.3. Copper Tolerance and Resistance
2.3. Iron
2.3.1. Iron Transport and Homeostasis
2.3.2. Iron Toxicity
2.3.3. Iron Tolerance and Resistance
2.4. Manganese
2.4.1. Manganese Transport and Homeostasis
2.4.2. Manganese Toxicity
2.4.3. Manganese Tolerance and Resistance
2.5. Silver
2.5.1. Silver Transport and Homeostasis
2.5.2. Silver Toxicity
2.5.3. Silver Tolerance and Resistance
3. Omics and Metal Homeostasis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Robinson, J.R.; Isikhuemhen, O.S.; Anike, F.N. Fungal–Metal Interactions: A Review of Toxicity and Homeostasis. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 225. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7030225
Robinson JR, Isikhuemhen OS, Anike FN. Fungal–Metal Interactions: A Review of Toxicity and Homeostasis. Journal of Fungi. 2021; 7(3):225. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7030225
Chicago/Turabian StyleRobinson, Janelle R., Omoanghe S. Isikhuemhen, and Felicia N. Anike. 2021. "Fungal–Metal Interactions: A Review of Toxicity and Homeostasis" Journal of Fungi 7, no. 3: 225. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7030225