1. Introduction
The pathogen,
Tilletia indica (T. indica), causes Karnal bunt (KB) in wheat, durum wheat, and triticale, and is also named as a partial bunt. It is an internationally quarantined disease [
1] affecting quality and production of wheat, and there is zero tolerance in various countries against KB for importing bunted wheat grains [
2]. The first report of occurrence was from the Indian city Karnal [
3] and since then it has been reported from other countries, namely Afghanistan, Iraq, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran, Mexico, Brazil, the United States (New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and California) and, finally, from South Africa (Northern Cape Province) in the present century [
4].
Management of KB has become a serious issue due to various factors such as the pathogen’s dispersal mode, lack of tolerant wheat varieties, and long-term survival of
T. indica spores in the soil. Therefore, cultural and fungicide control of KB is quite challenging. A compatible coupling of secondary sporidia increases the chance of variability because of heterozygosity. The higher crossover frequency in the pathogen suggested that intraspecific and interspecific hybridization may promote recombination and greater genetic diversity [
5]. Variability studies between fungal isolates and virulence are important for disease management and resistance improvement programs. Genetic variation of a pathogen can be understood through the use of genetic markers. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), ISSRs, RFLP and AFLP markers and have been confirmed to be useful in finding out the genetic and phylogenetic relationships of organisms [
6,
7,
8]. However, ISSRs and RAPD produce more bands and represent more loci than RFLP and AFLP; and previously 34 RAPD primers and 28 inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers on 10 isolates collected from different regions of India [
8,
9]. The mystery of genetic variation in pathogens is widely understood through the use of genetic markers. Diversity of
T. indica isolates was analyzed using pathological and molecular markers [
10,
11]. Ref. [
12] used ISSR-18, ISSR-1, ISSR-17, ISSR-1, ISSR-19, and RAPD 16 primers on 8 isolates of
T. indica. Effect of host determinant on variability was determined. They reported both marker systems have indicated the genetic variation between treated and untreated samples of monosporidial strains.
Despite its economic significance, very little work has been done on the molecular component and pathogenesis of the pathogen. In this study, attempts were made to analyze the genetic variations of T. indica isolates collected from different districts of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK). More importance was given categorically for precise detection of variation among T. indica isolates by using RAPD–ISSR markers. This study, to our knowledge and review the first time a large number of Pakistani isolates has been studied by using molecular techniques of ISSR and RAPD, will explore the links to find out the basis of pathogenicity in T. indica.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling and Culturing of KB Isolates
- a.
Sample collection
Infected wheat grains with KB were randomly collected from Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). Surveys were carried out to find the current status of KB during 2013–2014, and 48 isolates were collected [
13] (
Table 1). Twenty isolates collected during 2010–2011, including Pb-25 (aggressive isolate) [
14], were also used for the molecular analysis. The geographic coordinates of the sample collection sites and host cultivars are also given in
Table 1. The map positions of geographic coordinates are given in
Figure 1.
- b.
Isolation and multiplication of T. indica isolates and fungal inoculation
The infected seeds of 68 isolates (
Table 1) containing teliospores were suspended in 10 mL of sterilized distilled water and vortexed for 2 min. The spore suspension was passed through a 60 µm sieve and centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 2 min. Pellet was suspened in 1% sodium hypochlorite solution and centrifuged for 30 s at 12,000 rpm. Washing of spores with sterilized distilled water was done thrice and for this the spores were first centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 2 min and then the pellet was re-suspended in sterilized distilled water and plated on the water agar with 1000 µL micro-pipette (Gilson). The plates were incubated at 20 ± 2 °C for 10 days. After 10 days of incubation, the plates were examined under stereomicroscope for the confirmation and morphological studies of the pathogen as described previously. Colonies from single teliospores of
T. indica were cultured on PDA medium. After isolation of the pure cultures of each isolate of
T. indica, their mass multiplication for pathogenicity study was done. A small disk of freshly cultured
T. indica isolate on water agar was cut and placed on the upper edge of flasks/plate containing PDA for further multiplication and inoculum preparation. These flasks were labeled and incubated at 20 ± 2 °C for 15 days. The flasks were stored in the refrigerator to use for further experimentation [
15].
- c.
Pathogen (T. indica) material and DNA extraction
As described above in Section b, the mycelia of 68 isolates were collected for DNA extraction, from 15–20-day-old cultures that were incubated at 20 °C. Each mycelial layer of T. indica was filtered through autoclaved Whatman filter Paper No. 1 and washed thrice with sterile distilled water. The hyphae mat was dried between sheets of paper at room temperature. The dried mycelia were stored at −20 °C for further use.
All isolates were cultured separately, multiplied and maintained on Potato Dextrose Agar. The sporidial suspension of each isolate was prepared by adding sterilized distilled water, the fungus was scratched from PDA [
16] and the concentration of inoculum was adjusted to 50,000 spores mL
−1 with a hemocytometer [
17].
2.2. Pathogenicity Test of KB Isolates
Eight wheat varieties were selected as these were mega commercially grown varieties in the country, to assess the pathogenicity of isolates, including six commercial wheat varieties, namely, AARI-2011, Bakhtawar-92, Fakhre-Sarhad, Janbaz, NIFA-Barsat, and Tatara, along with 2HD-29 and WL-711 as resistant and susceptible check, respectively. Seeds of wheat varieties were obtained from National Coordinated Wheat Program, National Agriculture Research Centre Islamabad. The wheat varieties were sown in pots, during November 2014. After germination, three plants were maintained per pot. Five heads per pot were inoculated and three inoculated spikes were selected to assess the disease incidence and severity. The experiment was conducted in three replications in a completely randomized design in a two factorials setup.
- a.
Boot inoculation
The plants were inoculated individually with a spore suspension of each isolate using the boot inoculation method at booting stage [
18,
19]. Varieties were sown in pots and each variety was replicated thrice in different pots in a glasshouse. Three spikes per variety of each pot were inoculated just before the emergence of awns. Suspension of
T. indica spores (1mL) from 10–15-day-old cultures was injected into the boot with the aid of a hypodermic syringe. After inoculation, the spikes were labeled and covered with glycine bags to maintain the maximum moisture content for fungus proliferation [
20]. The inoculated pots were kept under high humidity (approx. 80%) in the glasshouse, an automated misting system was equipped, and the sprinklers were sprayed five times per day for 20 min each time, under a temperature regime of 18–20 °C [
21].
- b.
Harvesting and scoring
The inoculated spikes were harvested at maturity (58–60 days) after inoculation and threshed manually. The infected seeds were divided into different degrees/grades of infection depending on the extent of the damage on the scoring scale 0–5 [
22] (
Table 2).
The coefficient of infection (CI) was calculated [
23] as follows:
All isolates of the fungus T. indica were selected based on the CI. The isolates were classified as the most aggressive (20.1 and higher), aggressive (10.1–20.0), moderately aggressive (5.1–10.0), slightly aggressive (0.1–5.0) and non-aggressive (0). Similarly, the varieties were categorized on the base of the coefficient of infection value into highly resistant (HR), (0), resistant (R), (0.1–5.0), moderately susceptible (MS), (5.1–10.0), susceptible (S), (10.1–20.0), and highly susceptible (HS), (20.1 and above)
Percent infection (PI) of each variety was calculated by using the following formula [
24,
25]:
- c.
Data Analysis
Disease severity of the isolates and varietal response were analyzed based on their CI using Statistix 8.1. Average, percent seed infestation and LSD of both CI and PI were calculated using Statistix software. Design of the experiment was a completely randomized design in two factorials. Analysis of variance as appropriate for the completely randomized design was applied to assess the effect of isolates and varieties on the coefficient of infection and percent seed infestation. The boxplots were prepared in the R-Statistical software.
2.3. Genetic Diversity Analysis of KB Isolates
- a.
DNA extraction
The dried mycelium of
T. indica (200 mg) of each isolate was taken for DNA extraction using the CTAB method [
26] and was allowed to run on 1% agarose gel, along with standard marker for its quantification. The concentration of amplified DNA was assessed visually by checking the band intensity in comparison with Lambda (λ) DNA of known concentration under the UV transilluminator using a gel documentation system. Sharp and separate bands were estimated as good, whereas improper dissolution and thin bands were estimated as sheared [
27].
- b.
Primers used for molecular analysis of T. indica
A set of 31 RAPD (
Table S1) and 32 ISSR (
Table S2) were used for this study. Primers were diluted up to 10 pmol/µL. PCR amplification of
T. indica isolates was performed in a volume of 20 µL reaction on automated Applied Biosystems Thermal Cycler (Verity 96 well), with composition of 2 µL of 10X buffer, 2 µM of each primer, 0.4 uM dNTPs mixture, 0.2-unit Taq polymerase, 2.4 mM MgCl2, 1ul of template DNA and 12 µL of ddH2O.
The ISSR amplification regimes were performed at 94 °C for 3 min after that, 35 cycles of 94 °C for 40 s, later annealing was done according to primer for 40 s, followed by extension at 72 °C for 1 min, and a final extension at 72 °C for 10 min. For RAPD amplification, PCR cycles consisted of DNA denaturation at 94 °C for 3 min followed by 37 cycles of 92 °C for 1 min, then annealing was done according to primer for 1 min then extension at 72 °C for 2 min and followed by a final extension at 72 °C for 15 min.
The amplified DNA or products were run on 1.8% agarose gels at 100 V in 1 × TAE buffer for 1 h along with 1 kb DNA ladder. The DNA band pattern was visualized with UV light and recorded by the imaging system of gel documentation. PCR amplification was repeated thrice to reproduce the DNA profiles with all of the selected primers. A negative control (without DNA template) was added in all of the PCR reactions.
- c.
Data analysis
Data were computed to evaluate the various parameters for the comparison of RAPD and ISSR primers. The gel of all sets of primers was analyzed. Presence of bands was scored as 1 and absence as 0. A dendrogram was constructed using UPGMA (an unweighted pair method with arithmetic mean) to group individuals into discrete groups [
28]. Polymorphic information content (PIC) was calculated as follows:
PIC = 1 − (p/q)2 where p is total alleles detected at a given marker locus, q is a collection of genotypes studied. The multiplex ratio (MR) for each primer was assessed by dividing the total number of amplified bands (mono and polymorphic) amplified by the total number of primers (the combination of primers used -n). By using a marker, the average DNA fragments amplified by genotype are known to be a multiplex ratio (n). The number of polymorphic loci within the set of interest of the germplasm analyzed by experiments is called effective multiplex ratio (E) and estimated as E = nβ, where β is a fraction of polymorphic markers. It was calculated by considering the polymorphic loci (np) and a non-polymorphic locus (nnp), as ß = np/ (np + nnp). The usefulness of a given marker system is the balance between the level of polymorphism identified and the extent to which the marker identifies multiple polymorphisms. An informational product measured by PIC and an effective multiplex ratio called the Marker Index (MI) provided a suitable evaluation of the utility of the marker. MI = PIC × E or MI = n × β × PIC.
AMOVA was performed using software R to analyze the genetic diversity of
T. indica isolates. Escoffier et al. [
29] estimated the variance components of the RAPD and ISSR profiles and the assessment of intra- and inter-genetic diversity parameters such as the diversity of the gene Nei (Hexp), Standard error for the rarefaction analysis (SE), Shannon–Wiener Diversity index(H), Stoddard and Taylor’s Index (G), Simpson’s index (Lambda), (E.5)Evenness, Association Index (Ia), Standardized Index of Association for each population factor (rbarD), Observed number of alleles (obs), Standard deviation of data (Std. obs). Genetic structure was studied using the diversity statistics of Nei gene, diversity within population (HS), total genetic diversity (HT), population diversity (D-het) and gene differentiation coefficient (GST) calculated based on the Nei method by using software R [
30]. Gene flow estimated from GST was calculated as follows:
Nm = 0.5 (1-GST)/GST. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to obtain a 3D image graphically representing the genetic diversity between the isolates. It was generated using R software [
31].
4. Discussion
Compared to other sumt fungi, the control of KB is challenging due to its heterothallic nature and sporadic occurrence [
22]. Unfortunately, no work was previously conducted to understand and explore the pathogenicity and genetic variability of
T. indica in Pakistan. However, limited studies on the variability of
T. indica in terms of size of primary and secondary sporida, germination percent, morphology [
13,
15,
32] host reaction, and aggressiveness among isolates in pathogenicity tests were reported earlier from India and Pakistan [
14,
33,
34].
Our results revealed significantly variable pathogenicity in
T. indica isolates collected from different locations of Pakistan in terms of CI and PI (%). The isolate PB-25 reported earlier was also found significantly pathogenic as compared to other isolates assessed in the current study (
Table 2). Among other isolates, PB-55 has an aggressive response and was collected from the same district as the reference isolate [
14].
Based on pathogenic behavior, the isolates were arranged into three major groups. Group I contain moderately aggressive isolate (PB-25), Group II contained weakly aggressive isolates, and Group III comprised weakly and non-aggressive isolates (
Figure 2). Grouping of isolates into various clusters was based on their response to host [
16,
35]. The clustering was independent of the location of sampling for the given isolate. This would imply that variable pathogenicity exists among the isolates prevalent at a given location in major wheat-growing regions of Pakistan. Previously, similar results of lack of location-specific virulence variability were reported for
Puccinia striiformis populations from Pakistan [
36]. The prevalence of aggressive isolates has been suggested to be present in southern Punjab, Pakistan [
37]. However, our findings revealed the prevalence of the aggressive isolate from Northern Punjab (
Table 3), which is an indication of shifting of the pathogen from one area to another area. This has proven to be an alarming situation for the country as the area belongs to the major wheat-growing zones of the country.
Considering the airborne and seed-borne dispersal of the disease [
38], the hot spot of KB could be shifting from one place to another over the seasons. This will require a more collaborative effort while considering the deployment of varieties and disease management strategies. The situation could further be complicated by the assortment of virulence genes during sexual reproduction of the pathogen, which leads to the breakdown of host races [
10,
39] since the life cycle of
T. Indica differs from those of other bunt diseases of wheat in several ways as they germinate and produce haploid primary sporidia (basidiospores) that conjugate immediately on the promycelium and then produce dikaryotic infectious hyphae or dikaryotic secondary sporidia that systemically infect seedling plants. In contrast, teliospores of
T. indica germinate and produce monokaryotic, haploid, and primary sporidia that do not conjugate, but rather germinate and produce numerous monokaryotic, haploid, and secondary sporidia. The secondary sporidia are airborne to plant surfaces where they may germinate and produce additional generations of secondary sporidia [
2,
8,
33]. Further, because of the heterothallism and the complex phenomenon of race existence, the varieties needed to be tested against multiple isolates for their pathogenicity [
25,
40,
41].
The reaction of the eight varieties against 49 isolates of
T. indica revealed WL-711 exhibited a moderately susceptible response. The varieties NIFA-Barasat and HD-29, Janbaz, Bakhtawar-92, Tatara, and AARI -2011 showed a resistant to highly resistant response against all the isolates. The variety Fakhre-Sarhad showed a moderately susceptible to highly resistant response (
Table S3). These findings show that these varieties may possess multiple disease-resistance genes [
14,
42] and reported a resistant to a high-resistant reaction in varieties such as NIFA-Barasat, Punjab-2011, BARA-09 and Seher against a set of 21
T. indica isolates. The significant effect of isolates and varieties suggested the presence of pathogenic variation in
T. indica isolates as well as the resistance genes in these cultivars [
34], which could result from the gene-to-gene interaction dependent on a strain-host relationship [
37].
There are several field experimental studies to assess the response of varieties to natural infection of KB; however, limited studies have been done to assess the variability in a large number of pathogen isolates in terms of aggressiveness. Although such studies are regularly done for rust pathogens, fewer report on KB. The pathogenic variability observed in many isolates is helpful in disease-resistance development and deployment [
43,
44]. The pathogen adaptation potential is directly linked with the pathogen isolate diversity, which enables the acquisition of virulence against the deployed host resistance [
45]. The study must be conducted across multiple years to track the pathogen evolution in time. The isolates must also be compared with other regional partners in India, Afghanistan, and Iran to understand the potential of the pathogen in the context of invasions, as revealed in another wheat pathogen such as rusts. Such studies on pathogenic variability must thus enable better development and deployment of KB tolerance and resistance at the farmer field.
T. indica isolates were found to be highly diverse even in single infected grain [
46]. Previously, the variability of
T. indica was analyzed by using RAPD and ISSR on a very limited number of isolates. RAPD and ISSR techniques generated numerous polymorphic bands, and the presence of a high percentage of polymorphism indicated high variability in this pathogen targeted by the primers [
9]; however, in our study RAPD and ISSR primers generated 100 percent polymorphic bands, and no monomorphic band was found in each set of primers. Similar results were observed by other scientists who reported that DNA markers such as RAPD and ISSR [
9,
47,
48] are useful for detecting, differentiating, and determining phylogenetic relationships between isolates of morphological species of different pathogens [
7,
8,
49].
In this study, some unique bands of RAPD (4) and ISSR (9) were obtained. These unique bands were special to a particular isolate, making them distinguishable from others. These unique bands can be used as markers to identify the important isolates. Parveen et al. [
9] also observed a similar pattern in banding profiles obtained from RAPD and ISSR markers. In our study results of AMOVA based on ISSR and RAPD marker analyses showed the genetic variation of
T. indica isolates under study. Significant variability was found in gene diversity among the population and within the isolates at p-value 0.05. Although the difference between the isolates was not significant, this was due to the small geographical distance of the sample collection sites for the isolated pathogen. ISSR-based AMOVA reveals the highest differences of
T. indica isolates when comparing variations within species. However, in another study conducted by Medhi et al. [
50] on
zanthoxylum spp., they reported high variation in RAPD markers in AMOVA analysis.
Standardized index of association of Punjab and KPK showed the maximum value in RAPD (0.034 and 0.045), respectively, in the whole population. The tests for multilocus association (IA) were all significantly different from zero (
p < 0.001), revealing that there is linkage disequilibrium in all populations. Genetic diversity within a species is often associated with geographic extent, reproductive patterns, coupling systems, and seed dispersion and reproduction [
51]. Genetic structure and gene flow of the
T. indica isolates were found by the mean of the parameters such as total and within population diversity, coefficient of gene differentiation, and gene flow. Total (HT) and within population (HS) diversity were found to be the highest in ISSR with the high gene flow compared to RAPD. Coefficient of gene differentiation was higher in RAPD. In population genetics, the value of gene flow (Nm) ≤ 1.0 (less than one migrator per population in the population) or equivalently, the gene differentiation value (GST) > 0.25 is generally considered a threshold [
52]. Genetic flow values above 1 are “strong enough” to avoid significant differences due to genetic drift. The extension of genetic variation in species always favors selection (drift, gene flow) and nonselectivity (natural selection) in population segmentation. Taking into account these criteria, the
T. indica population have exceeded the threshold level, and ISSR is excellent in gene flow and gene differentiation assessment (ISSR (Nm = 9.6, GST = 0.05) in comparison to RAPD (Nm = 8.84, GST = 0.05). This information generated on such a large number of isolates of
T.indica from diversified ecological zones of Pakistan to assess genetic diversity is a first attempt that could be helpful for not only the breeders but the pathologists of South East Asia in combating this quarantine significance disease by exploring appropriate links for resistance genes.