A Critical Review on the Dosing and Safety of Antifungals Used in Exotic Avian and Reptile Species
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Key Interspecies Differences between Avians and Reptiles
3.1. Physiological Differences Impacting Susceptibility to Different Fungal Pathogens
3.2. Physiological Differences in Relation to PK
4. Pharmacology of Antifungals
5. Pharmacodynamic Variabilities in Avians and Reptiles
5.1. Evaluation of Dosing Regimens in Relation to Efficacy
5.1.1. Type of Fungal Pathogens/Disease
5.1.2. Site of Infection
5.2. Evaluation of Dosing Regimens in Relation to Safety
Site of Infection | Antifungal Used | Dosing Regimen | Species | Evaluation of Dosing Regimens in Relation to Efficacy and Safety | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aspergillus spp.a | |||||
Respiratory tract | Clotrimazole Itraconazole | 10 mg/mL NEB SID for 30–45 min on 3 day on–2 day off schedule PO 10 mg/kg SID × 1 month | African grey parrots (n = 1) Citron-crested cockatoo (n = 1) Gyrfalcon (n = 1) Red-tailed hawk (n = 1) Yellow-naped Amazon (n = 1) | Clotrimazole:
| [44] |
Respiratory tract | Amphotericin B Flucytosine | Intratracheal 1 mg/kg BID × 3 days IV 1.5 mg/kg TID × 3 days NEB 1 mg/mL of saline BID × 20 days PO 120 mg/kg QID × 20 days | Gyrfalcon (n = 1) |
| [44] |
Respiratory tract | Amphotericin B | NEB 1 mg/mL of saline BID × 31 days | Yellow-naped Amazon (n = 1) |
| [44] |
NR | Clotrimazole | NEB 40 mg for 1 h a day | Micronesian kingfisher (n = 1) |
| [45] |
NR | Fluconazole | PO 15 mg/kg q12 h × 5–75 days | African grey parrots (n = 23) |
| [46] |
Eyelids, head | Itraconazole Miconazole | PO 15 mg/kg q12–24 h × 3 months Topical BID on lesions | Falcon peregrinus × Falcon rusticolus (n = 1) |
| [47] |
NR | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg SD | Lesser flamingo (n = 17) |
| [48] |
NR | Voriconazole | PO 12.5 mg/kg q12 h × up to 91 days | Gyrfalcons × peregrine falcon hybrid (n = 1) Saker falcons (n = 2) |
| [49] |
NR | Voriconazole | PO 20 or 40 mg/kg SD | Japanese quail (n = 38 for each dosing) |
| [50] |
Respiratory tract | Amphotericin B | IV 0.5–0.75 mg | Prairie falcons (n = 2) |
| [51] |
Respiratory tract and hematogenous involvement | Flucytosine | PO 60 mg/kg BID | Crested wood partridges (n = 4) |
| [52] |
a Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
| |||||
Aspergillus flavus b | |||||
Lungs | Ketoconazole Enilconazole Itraconazole | PO 50 mg/kg PO 150 mg/kg Aerosol spray: 50 mg/kg PO 6 mg/kg | Turkeys (n = 20–40) |
| [53] |
Air sac | Voriconazole Micafungin Itraconazole | IM 23.5 mg/kg q12–24 h SC 11.6 or 22.7 mg/kg q12–24 h PO 10 mg/kg q12 h × 162 days | Okinawa rail (n = 1) |
| [54] |
b Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
| |||||
Aspergillus fumigatus c | |||||
Pectoral muscle | Itraconazole Miconazole Amphotericin B (liposomal formulation) | PO 20 mg/kg q12 h × 50 days Topical twice weekly Topical 1.35 mg/kg q24 h × 30 days → discontinued for 15 days → q24 h × 14 days → every 3/4 days × 16 days → every 5–7 days × 60 days | Goliath heron (n = 1) |
| [55] |
Trachea | Itraconazole | 10% NEB SID for 30 min × 6 days 4% NEB SID for 30 min × 6 days | Japanese quail (n = 40) |
| [56] |
Respiratory tract | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg/day × 7 days | Japanese quail (n = 60) |
| [57] |
Trachea | Voriconazole | PO 20 mg/kg SD PO 20 mg/kg q24 h PO 40 mg/kg SD PO 40 mg/kg q24 h | Japanese quail (n = 76 for single dose) (n = 40 for multiple dose) |
| [50] |
Ocular | Voriconazole | Topical 1 drop OS q4–6 h PO 20 mg/kg q12 h × 35 days | Khaki Campbell duck (n = 1) |
| [58] |
NR | Voriconazole | PO 8 mg/kg SID → 5 mg/kg SID → 5 days on treatment followed by 2-day off period × several years | Magellanic penguin (n = 1) |
| [59] |
Respiratory tract, air sac | Amphotericin B | IM 2.0 mg/kg SID | Peruvian penguins (n = 1) |
| [60] |
Lung | Voriconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q12 h × 14 days PO 20 mg/kg q24 h × 14 days | Racing pigeons (n = 10 for each dosing) |
| [61] |
c Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
| |||||
Candida albicans d | |||||
Respiratory tract | Nystatin Itraconazole Amphotericin B Fluconazole | PO 400,000 units/kg q12 h PO 10 mg/kg q12 h × 30 days Intralesional: 1 mg/kg NEB 1 mg/mL of saline for 15 min q8 h × 2 days PO 5 mg/kg q12 h × 1 month | Sun conure (n = 1) |
| [62] |
Gnathotheca, mandibular bone | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h × 10 days | Lesser flamingo (n = 1) |
| [63] |
Proventriculus | Ketoconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q12 h × 3 weeks | Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo (n = 1) |
| [64] |
Membrane nictitans, cornea | Amphotericin B Flucytosine | Topical, subconjunctival injection, PO (dosing NR) Parenteral: 400 mg/kg/24 h given as two divided doses over a period of 3 weeks | Barrow’s goldeneye, common scoter, red-breasted merganser, long-tailed duck (n = NR) |
| [65] |
d Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
| |||||
Cryptococcus neoformans e | |||||
Respiratory tract, globe, periocular tissues, and brain | Voriconazole | 1 drop of 1% reconstituted topical ophthalmic drops OS q6 h | African grey parrots (n = 1) |
| [66] |
Respiratory tract, globe, periocular tissues, and brain | Terbinafine Fluconazole | PO 20 mg/kg q12 h for 1 week → 15 mg/kg q12 h PO 15 mg/kg q12 h | African grey parrots (n = 1) |
| [66] |
Respiratory tract, globe, periocular tissues, and brain | Amphotericin B Terbinafine Fluconazole | Intraocular infusion: 1.5 mg/kg 3 doses into the globe × 4 months PO 15 mg/kg q24 h PO 15 mg/kg q24 h | African grey parrots (n = 1) |
| [66] |
Respiratory tract, globe, periocular tissues, and brain | Amphotericin B | IV 1.5 mg/kg | African grey parrots (n = 1) |
| [66] |
Respiratory tract, globe, periocular tissues, and brain | Flucytosine Fluconazole | PO 150 mg/kg q12 h PO 15 mg/kg q24 h | African grey parrots (n = 1) |
| [66] |
e Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
| |||||
Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii f | |||||
Beak, infraorbital sinus | Fluconazole | PO 8 mg/kg q24 h × 30 days | Goldie’s lorikeet (n = 1) |
| [69] |
Choana | Fluconazole | Intralesional injection 8 mg/kg SID × 30 days, → PO 8 mg/kg q24 h × 30 days | Papua lori (n = 1) | [69] | |
Cryptococcus gattii f | |||||
Rhamphotheca of lower beak (and underlying bones), lungs, spleen, and brain | Fluconazole | PO 15 mg/kg q12 h | Citron-crested cockatoo (n = 1) |
| [70] |
Humerus | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h | Pesquet’s parrot (n = 1) |
| [71] |
Humerus | Fluconazole | PO 10 mg/kg BID | Pesquet’s parrot (n = 1) |
| [71] |
Humerus, Glottis, trachea | Fluconazole Flucytosine Fluconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q12 h PO 50 mg/kg q12 h PO 15 mg/kg q24 h | Pesquet’s parrot (n = 1) |
| [71] |
Glottis, trachea | Amphotericin B | 1 mg/kg topical administration via atomisation syringe of reconstituted 5 mg/mL injectable q24 h × 2 weeks → q48 h × 2 weeks | Pesquet’s parrot (n = 1) |
| [71] |
f Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
|
Site of Infection | Antifungal Used | Dosing Regimen | Species | Evaluation of Dosing Regimens in Relation to Efficacy and Safety | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV and related spp.) infections a | |||||
Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV) | |||||
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 5 mg/kg q24 h + 1% topical silver sulfadiazine cream q12 h | Boa constrictor (n = 1) |
| [72] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 5 mg/kg q24 h | Coastal bearded dragon (n = 1) |
| [73] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 5 mg/kg q24 h | Inland bearded dragon (n = 7) |
| [74] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 5 mg/kg q48 h × 14 days + 20 mg/kg SC ceftazidime q72 h × 12 days | Inland bearded dragon (n = 1) |
| [35] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h × 6 weeks + 0.125% chlorhexidine topical solution | Inland bearded dragon (n = 1) |
| [35] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h × 10 weeks + daily baths in dilute povidone-iodine solution | Inland bearded dragon (n = 1) |
| [35] |
Systemic | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h × 21 days | Jewel chameleon (n = 1) |
| [75] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h × 21 days | Parson’s chameleon (n = 1) |
| [75] |
Skin | Voriconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h | Giant girdled lizard (n = 1) |
| [36] |
Skin | Voriconazole | PO 10 mg/kg q24 h | Inland bearded dragon (n = 7) |
| [74] |
Chrysosporium spp. | |||||
Skin | Ketoconazole | PO 20 mg/kg q24 h + 2% chlorhexidine solution + topical terbinafine | Green Iguana (n = 1) |
| [76] |
Skin | Ketoconazole | PO 20 mg/kg q24 h × 14 weeks + 2% chlorhexidine solution + topical terbinafine | Green Iguana (n = 1) |
| [76] |
Nannizziopsis guarroi | |||||
Skin | Terbinafine | PO 20 mg/kg SD | Inland bearded dragons (n = 8) |
| [77] |
Paranannizziopsis australasiensis | |||||
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 5 mg/kg q24 h × 28 days + topical 1% terbinafine ointment × 21 days | Tuatara (n = 1) |
| [78] |
Skin | Itraconazole | PO 5 mg/kg q24 h × 29 days | Tuatara (n = 1) |
| [78] |
a Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
| |||||
Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola b | |||||
Skin | Itraconazole | 10 mg/kg SD per cloaca | Cottonmouth (n = 7) |
| [79] |
Skin | Voriconazole | SC 5 mg/kg SD | Cottonmouth (n = 6) |
| [79] |
Skin | Voriconazole | SC 10 mg/kg SD | Cottonmouth (n = 1) |
| [79] |
Skin | Voriconazole | SC osmotic pump 22.2 mg/mL (1.02–1.6 mg/kg/h) | Eastern massasauga (n = 2) |
| [79] |
Skin | Voriconazole | SC osmotic pump 10 mg/mL (12.1–17.5 mg/kg/h) | Timber rattlesnake (n = 1) |
| [79] |
Skin | Terbinafine | 2 mg/mL (18 mg total dose) × 30 min via nebulisation | Cottonmouth (n = 7) |
| [37] |
Skin | Terbinafine | 24.5 mg (75–190 mg/kg) SC implant cranial to midbody point | Cottonmouth (n = 7) |
| [37] |
Mandible and eye | Ketoconazole | PO 50 mg/kg q24 h | Black ratsnake (n = 1) |
| [80] |
b Evaluation of antifungal therapy:
|
6. Pharmacokinetic Variabilities in Avians and Reptiles
6.1. Azoles
6.1.1. Voriconazole
Different Extent of Saturable Metabolism
Species-Specific Autoinduction of CYP Enzymes
Varying V across Species
6.1.2. Itraconazole
Formulation Differences Affecting Absorption Parameters
Differences in Half-Life across Species
Species-Specific Itraconazole/OH-ITRA Ratio
6.1.3. Other Azoles
6.2. Allylamines
6.2.1. Accumulation in Peripheral Tissues
6.2.2. Disparities in Half-Lives
Species | Formulation | Fed/Fasted State | ROA | Dosing Regimen | Cmax/Css (µg/mL) | Tmax (h) | CL/F (mL/h/kg) | V/F (L/kg) | Half-Life (h) | AUC0–∞ (µg.h/mL) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Azoles | |||||||||||
Fluconazole | |||||||||||
African grey parrot (n = 12) | Injectable | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 8.19 | Cmp: 5.18 | Cmp: 53.39 | Cmp: 0.90 | Cmp: 11.65 | 187.31 | [96] |
African grey parrot (n = 20) | Suspension of tablets | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 7.45 | Cmp: 5.91 | Cmp: 64.71 | Cmp: 0.86 | Cmp: 9.22 | 154.55 | [96] |
African grey parrot (n = 5) | Suspension of tablets | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg q48 h × 12 days | NR | NR | NR | NR | 11.4–16.3 | NR | [96] |
African grey parrot (n = 12) | Suspension of tablets | NR | PO | 20 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 18.59 | Cmp: 9.54 | Cmp: 38.25 | Cmp: 0.56 | Cmp: 10.19 | 522.92 | [96] |
African grey parrot (n = 10) | Suspension of tablets | NR | PO | 20 mg/kg q48 h × 12 days | NR | NR | NR | NR | 11.4–16.3 | NR | [96] |
Cockatiel (n = 28) | Suspension | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 4.94 NCmp: 4.941 | Cmp: 3.42 NCmp: 3 | Cmp: 66.99 NCmp: 66.62 | Cmp: 1.84 NCmp: 1.88 | Cmp: 19.01 | Cmp: 149.28 NCmp: 150.08 | [97] |
Cockatiel (n = 15) | Crushed tablets in drinking water | Ad libitum | PO | 100 mg/L | Day 3 (0800 HRS): 3.69 ± 1.22 Day 3 (1600 HRS): 4.17 ± 1.96 Day 7 (0800 HRS): 9.53 ± 1.48 Day 7 (1600 HRS): 12.95 ± 4.62 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [97] |
Cockatiel (n = 6) | Crushed tablets in drinking water | Ad libitum | PO | 150 mg/L | Day 3 (1100 HRS): 6.42 ± 0.86 Day 3 (1600 HRS): 11.36 ± 4.27 Day 7 (1100 HRS): 4.78 ± 0.91 Day 7 (1600 HRS): 6.61 ± 1.67 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [97] |
Itraconazole | |||||||||||
African penguin (n = 3) | Commercial formulation (Sporanox) | Fed | PO | 7 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.75 ± 0.27 | NCmp: 3.7 ± 1.5 | NR | NR | NCmp: 5.8 ± 1.1 | NCmp: 6.23 ± 1.40 | [98] |
African penguin (n = 3) | Compounded formulation | Fed | PO | 7 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.35 ± 0.14 | NCmp: 2.1 ± 1.6 | NR | NR | NCmp: 6.2 ± 2.8 | NCmp: 2.31 ± 1.00 | [98] |
African penguin (n = 9) | Commercial formulation (Itrafungol) | Fed | PO | 20 mg/kg SD | 1.47 | 5.06 | 759.86 | NR | 8.05 | AUC0-last: 26.32 | [86] |
Blue-Fronted Amazon parrot (n = 8) | NR | Fed | PO | 5 mg/kg q24 h × 14 days | Day 1: 1.74 Day 14: 1.44 | Day 1: 3.7 Day 14: 6.0 | NR | NR | Day 1: 6.1 Day 14: 3.7 | Day 1: 20.96 Day 14: 20.84 | [90] |
Blue-Fronted Amazon parrot (n = 8) | NR | Fed | PO | 10 mg/kg q24 h × 14 days | Day 1: 2.31 Day 14: 3.43 | Day 1: 4.9 Day 14: 6.9 | NR | NR | Day 1: 6.2 Day 14: 7.2 | AUC0-last: Day 1: 32.14 Day 14: 71.91 | [90] |
Humboldt penguin (n = 15) | Commercial capsules (Sporanox) | Fed | PO | 7 mg/kg q12 h × 14 days | NCmp, ITRA: 0.26 ± 0.15 NCmp, OH-ITRA: 0.99 ± 0.39 | NR | NR | NR | NCmp, ITRA: 9.09 NCmp, OH-ITRA: 11.24 | NCmp, AUC (0–12 h), ITRA: 1.96 OH-ITRA: 10.35 | [91] |
Japanese quail (n = 12) | 10% suspension (nebulised without dilution) | NR | NEB | SD × 30 min | NCmp: 27.49 ± 4.58 µg/g a | NCmp: 4 a | NR | NR | NCmp: 35.8 a | NCmp, AUC0-last: 1133.01 µg.h/g a | [99] |
Japanese quail (n = 12) | 1% suspension | NR | NEB | SD × 30 min | NCmp: 4.14 ± 0.19 µg/g a | NCmp: 4 a | NR | NR | NCmp: 24.7 a | NCmp, AUC0-last: 106.69 µg.h/g a | [99] |
Japanese quail (n = 18) | 10% suspension | NR | NEB | SID for 30 min × 5 days | NCmp: 104.8 ± 10.02 µg/g a | NCmp: 0.167 a | NR | NR | NCmp: 164.1 a | NCmp, AUC0-last: 4955.63 µg.h/g a | [99] |
Lesser Flamingo (n = 17) | Commercial formulation (Itrafungol) | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg SD | NLMEM: 1.69 | NLMEM: 4.73 | NLMEM: 50 | NLMEM: 5.67 | NLMEM: 75.71 | NLMEM: 192.58 | [48] |
Mallard duck (n = 15) | Acidified with HCL in orange juice | NR | PO | 20 mg/kg SD | Cmp, ITRA: 1.07 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 0.34 | Cmp, ITRA: 0.8 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 4 | NR | Cmp, ITRA: 17.3 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 38.4 | Cmp, ITRA: 7.45 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 6.27 | Cmp, ITRA: 12.4 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 4.7 | [39] |
Mallard duck (n = 15) | Formulated with β-CD * | NR | PO | 20 mg/kg SD | Cmp, ITRA: 1.35 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 0.27 | Cmp, ITRA: 0.5 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 6.3 | NR | Cmp, ITRA: 20.7 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 38.4 | Cmp, ITRA: 8.5 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 6.74 | Cmp, ITRA: 11.9 Cmp, OH-ITRA: 5.1 | [39] |
Racing pigeon (n = 48) | Capsule (Sporanox/ Trisporal) | Fasted | PO | 10.3 mg/kg SD | 1.13 ± 0.44 | 4 | NR | NR | NR | NR | [40] |
Racing pigeon (n = 10) | Capsule (Sporanox/ Trisporal) | Fasted | PO | 10.3 mg/kg q6 h × 3 days | Css: 3.6 ± 0.9 | NR | NR | NR | 13.3 | NR | [40] |
Voriconazole | |||||||||||
African grey parrot (n = 12) | In water | NR | PO | 6 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.54 | NCmp: 2 | NCmp: 2184.9 | NCmp: 3.50 | NCmp: 1.11 | NCmp: 2.75 | [100] |
African grey parrot (n = 12) | In water | NR | PO | 12 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 1.89 | NCmp: 4 | NCmp: 1151.4 | NCmp: 2.63 | NCmp: 1.59 | NCmp: 10.42 | [100] |
African grey parrot (n = 12) | In commercial suspending agent | NR | PO | 12 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 3.02 | NCmp: 2 | NCmp: 679.4 | NCmp: 1.05 | NCmp: 1.07 | NCmp: 17.66 | [100] |
African grey parrot (n = 12) | In commercial suspending agent | NR | PO | 18 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 5.67 Cmp: 5.85 | NCmp: 2 Cmp: 3.01 | NCmp: 521.3 Cmp: 540.21 | NCmp: 1.20 Cmp: 1.14 | NCmp: 1.59 Cmp: 1.46 | NCmp: 34.53 Cmp: 33.32 | [100] |
African penguin (n = 18) | Suspension | Fasted | PO | 5 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 1.89 ± 0.43 | Cmp: 0.4 ± 0.43 | NR | NR | Cmp: 10.92 ± 7.75 | Cmp, AUC (0–24 h): 13.82 ± 5.53 | [101] |
African penguin (n = 16) | Suspension | Fasted | PO | 5 mg/kg q24 h × 8 days | NR | NR | Cmp: 0.18 ± 0.08 L/h | Cmp: 3.34 ± 1.20 L | Cmp: 10.92 | Cmp, AUC (84–108 h): 37.7 | [101] |
Common raven (n = 8) | Solution | Fed | IV | 10 mg/kg SD | NR | NR | Cmp: 280.11 | Cmp: 1.59 | Cmp: 3.92 | Cmp: 35.70 | [82] |
Common raven (n = 4) | Suspension | Fed | PO | 6 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 3.17 | Cmp: 1.56 | Cmp: 415.16 | Cmp: 0.97 | Cmp: 0.76 | Cmp: 14.45 | [82] |
Common raven (n = 8) | Suspension | Fed | PO | 12 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 11.84 | Cmp: 2.74 | Cmp: 133.72 | Cmp: 0.44 | Cmp: 1.59 | Cmp: 89.74 | [82] |
Common raven (n = 4) | Suspension | Fed | PO | 24 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 13.46 | Cmp: 4.30 | Cmp: 152.50 | Cmp: 0.69 | Cmp: 2.83 | Cmp: 157.38 | [82] |
Gyrfalcon (n = 2) | Suspension of powder | NR | IM | 12.5 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 5.06 ± 0.81 | NCmp: 0.50 | NCmp: 220 ± 20 | NCmp, Vss: 2.01 ± 0.85 | NCmp: 5.59 ± 2.63 | NCmp: 55.94 ± 4.75 | [102] |
Gyrfalcon × peregrine falcon hybrid (n = 1) | Solution injected in quail meat | Fed | PO | 12.5 mg/kg q12 h × 1 week | 1.7 | Day 2 | NR | NR | NR | NR | [49] |
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (n = 15) | Suspension | NR | PO | 12 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 2.49 PKM: 2.58 NLMEM: 2.81 ± 0.31 | NCmp:1.00 PKM: 1.01 NLMEM: 0.96 ± 0.33 | NCmp: 1575.56 PKM: 1691.32 NLMEM: 1989.71 ± 0.24 | NCmp: 2.05 PKM: 1.70 NLMEM: 1.65 | NCmp: 0.90 PKM: 0.70 NLMEM: 0.71 ± 0.27 | NCmp: 7.61 PKM: 7.10 NLMEM: 7.62 ± 1.15 | [81] |
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (n = 12) | Suspension | NR | PO | 24 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 5.08 PKM: 5.17 NLMEM: 4.95 ± 0.44 | NCmp: 2.00 PKM: 1.30 NLMEM: 1.46 ± 0.19 | NCmp: 1306.01 PKM: 1471.47 NLMEM: 1414.61 ± 0.94 | NCmp: 2.35 PKM: 2.48 NLMEM: 2.13 ± 0.01 | NCmp: 1.25 PKM: 1.17 NLMEM: 1.72 ± 0.37 | NCmp: 18.38 PKM: 16.31 NLMEM: 23.38 ± 3.78 | [81] |
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (n = 6) | Suspension | NR | PO | 18 mg/kg q8 h × 11 days | NCmp, C(2 h), Day 0: 2.89 NCmp, C(2 h), Day 10: 0.79 | NCmp, Day 0: 2 NCmp, Day 10: 2 | NR | NR | NCmp, Day 0: 1.15 NCmp, Day 10: 1.29 | NCmp, AUC(2–5 h): Day 0: 4.59 AUC (2–5 h), Day 10: 1.17 | [81] |
Japanese quail (n = 38) | Suspension | NR | PO | 20 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 5.8 | NCmp: 2 | NR | Cmp: 1.77 | NCmp: no value Cmp: 1.37 | NCmp: no value | [50] |
Japanese quail (n = 38) | Suspension | NR | PO | 40 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 6.9 | NCmp: 2 | NR | Cmp: 6.10 | NCmp: 9.11 Cmp: 8.45 | NCmp: 89.8 | [50] |
Magellanic penguin (n = 15) | Suspension | Fed | PO | 2.5 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 1.08 | NCmp: 2.02 | NCmp: 17.18 | NCmp: 0.18 | NCmp: 7.26 | NCmp: 14.55 | [59] |
Magellanic penguin (n = 30) | Suspension | Fed | PO | 5 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 2.59 | NCmp: 1.03 | NCmp: 4.62 | NCmp: 0.22 | NCmp: 33.71 | NCmp: 108.29 | [59] |
Mallard duck (n = 6) | Solution | Fasted | IV | 10 mg/kg SD | NR | NR | NCmp: 530 ± 96 | Cmp, Vc: 1.23 ± 0.35 NCmp, Vss: 1.14 ± 0.39 | NCmp: 1.34 ± 0.58 Cmp: 1.44 ± 0.44 | NCmp: 19.35 ± 3.19 | [84] |
Mallard duck (n = 6) | Solution | Fasted | PO | 10 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 3.94 ± 0.29 | NCmp: 0.77 ± 0.68 | NR | Cmp: 1.50 ± 0.48 | NCmp: 1.11 ± 0.27 Cmp: 1.00 ± 0.37 | NCmp: 11.48 ± 2.61 | [84] |
Mallard duck (n = 6) | Suspension | Fed | PO | 20 mg/kg q24 h × 21 days | NCmp, Day 1: 10.91 ± 2.16 NCmp, Day 21: 9.96 ± 1.60 | NCmp, Day 1: 2 ± 1.1 NCmp, Day 21: 1 | NR | Cmp, Day 1: 0.80 ± 0.25 Cmp, Day 21: 0.90 ± 0.14 | NCmp, Day 1: 1.79 ± 0.67 NCmp, Day 21: 0.85 ± 0.08 Cmp, Day 1: 1.41 ± 0.29 Cmp, Day 21: 0.72 ± 0.08 | AUC0-last: NCmp, Day 1: 55.83 ± 15.44 NCmp, Day 21: 26.14 ± 5.49 | [84] |
Mallard duck (n = 12) | Suspension | Fasted | PO | 20 mg/kg q24 h × 21 days | NCmp, Day 1: 11.06 ± 1.95 NCmp, Day 21: 8.09 ± 2.63 | NCmp, Day 1: 1.33 ± 0.52 NCmp, Day 21: 1.08 ± 0.49 | NR | Cmp, Day 1: 0.58 ± 0.1 Cmp Day 21: 1.62 ± 0.94 | NCmp, Day 1: 1.01 ± 0.22 NCmp, Day 21: 1.16 ± 0.25 Cmp, Day 1: 0.89 ± 0.11 Cmp, Day 21: 1.11 ± 0.28 | AUC0-last: NCmp, Day 1: 48.68 ± 6.68 NCmp, Day 21: 29.79 ± 15.70 | [84] |
Peregrine falcon (n = 2) | Suspension of powder | NR | IM | 12.5 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 5.79 ± 0.68 | NCmp: 1.00 | NCmp: 210 ± 20 | NCmp, Vss: 1.75 ± 0.44 | NCmp: 5.01 ± 2.81 | NCmp: 60.07 ± 6.35 | [102] |
Racing pigeon (n = 15) | NR | NR | IV | 2.5 mg/kg SD | NR | NR | NCmp, CL: 120 Cmp, CL: 120 | NCmp, V: 1.05 Cmp, V: 1.11 | NCmp: 6.15 Cmp: 6.62 | NCmp: 18.48 Cmp: 18.82 | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 15) | NR | NR | IV | 5 mg/kg SD | NR | NR | NCmp, CL: 83 Cmp, CL: 86 | NCmp, V: 1.42 Cmp, V: 1.41 | NCmp: 11.82 Cmp: 11.33 | NCmp: 60.23 Cmp: 57.93 | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 24) | NR | NR | IV | 10 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 6.41 Cmp: 5.58 | NR | NCmp, CL: 76 Cmp, CL: 76 | NCmp, V: 1.77 Cmp, V: 1.79 | NCmp: 16.18 Cmp: 16.25 | NCmp: 131.73 Cmp: 130.74 | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 24) | Suspension of crushed tablets in water | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 3.65 Cmp: 3.32 | NCmp: 2.00 Cmp: 2.15 | NCmp: 180 Cmp: 176 | NCmp: 2.44 Cmp: 2.60 | NCmp: 9.29 Cmp: 10.32 | NCmp: 55.08 Cmp: 57.07 | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 20) | Suspension of crushed tablets in water | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg q12 h × 4 days | NCmp, Cmax (mean) = 2.35 | NR | NR | NR | NCmp, Day 4: 1.6 | NR | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 20) | Suspension of crushed tablets in water | NR | PO | 10 mg/kg q24 h × 3 days | NCmp, Cmax (mean), Day 1: 3.68 NCmp, Cmax (mean), Day 3: 2.42 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 12) | Suspension of crushed tablets in water | NR | PO | 20 mg/kg q24 h × 10 days | NCmp, Cmax (mean), Day 1: 8.62 NCmp, Cmax (mean), Day 9: 9.18 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [32] |
Racing pigeon (n = 6) | NR | NR | NEB | 10 mg/mL 0.9% sodium chloride × 15 min | 0.41 ± 0.20 | 1.5 | NR | NR | NR | NR | [32] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 12) | Suspension | Fed | PO (by gavage) | 10 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 4.7 ± 1.3 | NCmp: 2.0 ± 1.2 | NCmp: 410 ± 208 | NCmp: 1.6 ± 0.84 | NCmp: 2.8 ± 0.67 | NCmp: 29.0 ± 9.9 | [103] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 8) | NR | Fed | PO | 10 mg/kg q12 h × 14 days | NCmp: 4.5 ± 2.7 | NCmp: 2.4 ± 1.1 | NCmp: 515 ± 197 | NCmp: 1.5 ± 0.73 | NCmp: 2.1 ± 0.8 | NCmp: 26 ± 9.6 | [103] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 3) | Suspension of powder | Fed | PO | 15 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 6.18 ± 1.59 | NCmp: 4.86 ± 1.95 | NCmp: 485.16 ± 274.93 | NCmp: 1.35 ± 0.41 L b | NCmp: 2.29 ± 1.01 | NCmp: 45.70 ± 20.96 | [104] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 4) | Suspension of powder | Fasted | PO | 15 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 7.23 ± 1.34 | NCmp: 2.29 ± 0.76 | NCmp: 430.57 ± 188.36 | NCmp: 1.18 ± 0.36 L b | NCmp: 2.04 ± 0.62 | NCmp: 46.01 ± 11.80 | [104] |
Saker falcon (n = 3) | Suspension of powder | NR | IM | 12.5 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 5.57 ± 0.88 | NCmp: 0.79± 0.29 | NCmp: 200 ± 40 | NCmp, Vss: 1.93 ± 0.06 | NCmp: 6.53 ± 1.12 | NCmp: 62.75 ± 10.53 | [102] |
Saker falcon (n = 3), Gyrfalcon × peregrine falcon hybrid (n = 2), Gyrfalcon (n = 1) | Fine powder in sterile water | Fed | PO (by gavage) | 12.5 mg/kg q12 h × 2 weeks | 1.9–2.4 | 1 | NR | NR | NR | NR | [49] |
ALLYLAMINES | |||||||||||
Terbinafine | |||||||||||
African penguin (n = 10) c,d | Tablets compounded into slurry | NR | PO | 3 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.1 ± 0.02 Cmp: 0.1 ± 0.02 | NCmp: 4.0 ± 0.94 Cmp: 2.7 ± 0.96 | NCmp 2600 ± 380 mL/h Cmp: 2600 ± 400 mL/h | 37 ± 28.5 Cmp: 37.0 ± 22.90 mg/L NCmp: 37.0 ± 28.50 mg/L | NCmp, 1st: 10.0 ± 4.5 Cmp, 1st: 10.0 ± 4.9 NCmp, 2nd: 121 ± 10 Cmp, 2nd: 123 ± 6 | AUC0–last: NCmp: 1.2 ± 0.17 Cmp: 1.2 ± 0.12 | [105] |
African penguin (n = 10) c,d | Tablets compounded into slurry | NR | PO | 7 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.4 ± 0.11 Cmp: 0.2 ± 0.10 | NCmp: 4.0 ± 0.87 Cmp: 1.6 ± 0.90 | NCmp: 1600 ± 690 mL/h Cmp: 1900 ± 610 mL/h | Cmp: 37.0 ± 23.80 mg/L NCmp: 40.0 ± 28.10 mg/L | NCmp, 1st: 17.0 ± 4.9 Cmp, 1st: 13.0 ± 4.9 NCmp, 2nd: 136 ± 9.7 Cmp, 2nd: 13.0 ± 9.90 | AUC0–last: NCmp: 4.3 ± 1.86 Cmp: 3.7 ± 1.12 | [105] |
African penguin (n = 10) c,d | Tablets compounded into slurry | NR | PO | 15 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.3 ± 0.05 Cmp: 0.2 ± 0.06 | NCmp: 4.0 ± 1.23 Cmp: 2.4 ± 1.33 | Cmp: 2800 ± 290 mL/h NCmp: 2100 ± 350 mL/h | Cmp: 68.0 ± 21.60 mg/L NCmp: 52.0 ± 18.60 mg/L | NCmp, 1st: 17.0 ± 5.4 Cmp, 1st: 17.0 ± 4.5 NCmp, 2nd: 131 ± 9.9 Cmp, 2nd: 130 ± 11.1 | AUC0–last: NCmp: 6.0 ± 1.16 Cmp: 5.4 ± 1.13 | [105] |
African penguin (n = 10) | Tablets compounded into slurry | NR | PO | 15 mg/kg q24 h × 4 days | 2.1 ± 0.94 | 0.8 ± 0.84 | 0.5 ± 0.71 | NR | 129.0 ± 6.00 | NR | [105] |
Common shelduck (n = 7) | Crushed commercial tablet suspension (Lamisil) | NR | PO | 60 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 3.99–7.17 | NCmp: 1.0–2.0 | NR | NR | NCmp: 4.18–8.71 | NCmp: 22.73–54.75 | [106] |
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (n = 6) | Crushed tablet suspension | Fed | PO | 60 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.11–0.67 | NCmp: 2.0–8.0 | NR | NR | NCmp: 8.56–13.51 | NCmp: 1.90–4.44 | [107] |
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (n = 3) | Crushed tablet solution | NR | NEB | 1 mg/mL × 15 min | NCmp: 0.048 ± 0.027 | NCmp: 0.14 ± 0.09 | NR | NR | NCmp: 0.35± 0.18 | NCmp: 0.03 ± 0.02 | [108] |
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (n = 3) | Raw powder solution | NR | NEB | 1 mg/mL × 15 min | NCmp: 0.20 ± 0.18 | NCmp: 0.30 ± 0.38 | NR | NR | NCmp: 0.31± 0.38 | NCmp: 0.11 ± 0.11 | [108] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 10) d,e | Crushed tablets in gelatin capsule (in rat belly meat) | Fed | PO | 15 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.3 ± 0.24 Cmp: 0.3 ± 0.24 | NCmp: 5.4 ± 2.98 Cmp: 5.4 ± 2.98 | NCmp: 2400 ± 1460 Cmp: 2300 ± 1460 | NCmp: 76.8 ± 38.06 Cmp: 72.0 ± 36.6 | NCmp, 1st: 14.7 ± 6.67 Cmp, 1st: 15.0 ± 7.13 Cmp, 2nd: 161 ± 78.2 | NCmp: 6.2 ± 3.57 Cmp: 6.7 ± 3.67 | [109] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 10) d,e | Crushed tablets in gelatin capsule (in rat belly meat) | Fed | PO | 30 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 1.2 ± 0.40 Cmp: 1.2 ± 0.40 | NCmp: 3.4 ± 0.96 Cmp: 3.4 ± 0.96 | NCmp: 1500 ± 720 Cmp: 1400 ± 720 | NCmp: 55.2 ± 17.40 Cmp: 50.1 ± 24.4 | NCmp, 1st: 17.5 ± 8.7 Cmp, 1st: 18.2 ± 6.3 Cmp, 2nd: 147 ± 65.6 | NCmp: 20.1 ± 9.07 Cmp: 21.6 ± 10.10 | [109] |
Red-tailed hawk (n = 10) d,e | Crushed tablets in gelatin capsule (in rat belly meat) | Fed | PO | 60 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 2.0 ± 0.75 Cmp: 2.0 ± 0.75 | NCmp: 5.1 ± 3.50 Cmp: 5.1 ± 3.50 | NCmp: 1700 ± 750 Cmp: 1400 ± 750 | NCmp: 42.2 ± 25.40 Cmp: 45.5 ± 15.4 | NCmp, 1st: 13.3 ± 5.03 Cmp, 1st: 13.3 ± 5.13 Cmp, 2nd: 139 ± 42.0 | NCmp: 35.3 ± 15.39 Cmp: 43.2 ± 22.76 | [109] |
Species | ROA | Dosing Regimen | Cmax/Css (µg/mL) | Tmax (h) | CL/F (mL/h/kg) | V/F (L/kg) | Half-Life (h) | AUC0–∞ (µg.h/mL) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZOLES | |||||||||
Ketoconazole | |||||||||
Gopher tortoise (n = 8) | PO | 15 mg/kg q24 h × 3 days | Css(avg): 2.2 | NR | 18 ± 1.2 | 5.6 ± 0.7 | 13.2 ± 1.7 | 49.7 ± 2.7 a | [110] |
Gopher tortoise (n = 14) | PO | 30 mg/kg SD | 3.39 ± 0.12 | 10.57 ± 0.82 | 301.2 ± 5.4 | NR | 11.57 ± 3.46 | 99.75 ± 7.52 a | [111] |
Gopher tortoise (n = 8) | PO | 30 mg/kg q24 h × 3 days | Css(avg): 4.4 | NR | 18 ± 1.8 | 5.8 ± 0.8 | 14.4 ± 2.5 | 105.2 ± 11.9 | [110] |
Fluconazole | |||||||||
Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle (n = 21) | SC | 21 mg/kg SD | NLMEM: 26.16 | NLMEM: 0.79 | NLMEM: 10.93 | NLMEM: 0.79 | NLMEM: 50.35 | NLMEM: 1921.17 a | [112] |
Loggerhead sea turtle (n = 6) | IV | 2.5 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 2.7 ± 0.5 | NR | Cmp: 8.2 ± 4.3 | Cmp, Vss: 1.38 ± 0.26 | Cmp: 132.6 ± 48.7 | Cmp: 360.4 ± 172.2 | [113] |
Loggerhead sea turtle (n = 6) | SC | 2.5 mg/kg SD | Cmp: 2.1 ± 0.4 | Cmp: 4.8 | NR | NR | Cmp: 139.5 ± 36.0 | Cmp: 368.7 ± 177.5 | [113] |
Loggerhead sea turtle (n = 4) | SC | 21 mg/kg loading dose, followed by 10 mg/kg q5d | Css(4 h): 16.9 ± 1.2 Css(244 h): 19.0 ± 2.8 | NA | NR | NR | 143 | NR | [113] |
Itraconazole | |||||||||
Cottonmouth (n = 7) | Per cloaca | 10 mg/kg SD | NCmp: ITRA: 0.47 ± 0.15 OH-ITRA: 0.12 ± 0.05 | NCmp: ITRA: 10.86 ± 16.57 OH-ITRA: 56 ± 13.86 | NR | NR | NCmp: 14.92 ± 5.33 | NCmp: 19.01 ± 17.11 | [79] |
Inland bearded dragon (n = 7) | PO | 5 mg/kg q24 h | Cmax: 0.16–7.8 (mean = 3.64) | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [74] |
Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle (n = 2) | PO | 5 mg/kg q72 h | NCmp: 0.19–0.78 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NCmp, AUC0–last: ITRA: 20.1 ± 12.3 OH-ITRA: 2.18 ± 1.06 | [88] |
Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle (n = 3) | PO | 10 mg/kg q72 h | NCmp: 0.13–0.98 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NCmp, AUC0–last: ITRA: 20.6 ± 18.8 OH-ITRA: 1.84 ± 2.08 | [88] |
Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle (n = 3) | PO | 15 mg/kg q72 h | NCmp: 0.81–1.07 | NR | NR | NR | NCmp: ITRA: 75 OH-ITRA: 55 | NCmp, AUC0–last: ITRA: 54.0 ± 11.9 OH-ITRA: 3.19 ± 1.22 | [88] |
Spiny lizard (n = 35) | PO | 23.5 mg/kg (mean) q24 h × 3 days | 2.48 | 98.8 | NR | NR | 48.3 | 377.21 | [114] |
Voriconazole | |||||||||
Giant girdled lizard (n = 1) | PO | 10 mg/kg q24 h × 10 weeks | 2.81–3.34 (mean: 3.04) | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [36] |
Inland bearded dragon (n = 7) | PO | 10 mg/kg q24 h | ≥0.91–14.4 (mean = 5.74) | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | [74] |
Northwestern pond turtle (n = 7) | SC | 10 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 41.0 ± 1.96 | NCmp: 2 | NR | NR | NCmp: 15.2 | NCmp: 921.1 | [85] |
Northwestern pond turtle (n = 7) | SC | 10 mg/kg q48 h × 14 days | NCmp: 12.4 ± 2.2 | NCmp: 50 | NR | NR | NR | NR | [85] |
Red-eared slider turtle (n = 12) | SC | 10 mg/kg q12 h × 7 days | 7.58 ± 5.39 | 1.29 ± 1.28 | NR | NR | NR | NR | [115] |
ALLYLAMINES | |||||||||
Terbinafine | |||||||||
Cottonmouth (n = 7) | NEB | 18 mg (2 mg/mL TBF HCl solution) × 30 min | NCmp: 0.23 ± 0.14 | NCmp: 4 ± 3 | NR | NR | NR | NCmp, AUC0–last: 1.33 ± 0.98 | [37] |
Cottonmouth (n = 7) | SC implant | 24.5 mg (75–190 mg/kg) | NCmp: 0.20 ± 0.20 | NCmp: 229 ± 321 | NR | NR | NR | NCmp, AUC0–last: 75.6 ± 52.9 | [37] |
Inland bearded dragon (n = 8) | PO | 20 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.43 ± 0.34 | NCmp: 13 ± 4.66 | NR | NR | NCmp: 21.24 ± 12.40 | NCmp: 11.36 ± 9.81 | [77] |
Northwestern pond turtle (n = 18) | NEB | 18 mg (2 mg/mL) q24 h × 28 days | Cmax (keratin): 56.25 ± 79.10 µg/g | Tmax (keratin): 16.72 ± 8.01 days | NR | NR | NR | AUC (keratin): 1077 ± 1434 day µg/g | [116] |
Northwestern pond turtle (n = 7) | PO | 30 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.79 ± 0.91 | NCmp: 1.8 ± 2.8 | NR | NR | NCmp: 26.2 ± 12.7 | NCmp, AUC0–last: 10.91± 11.34 | [117] |
Northwestern pond turtle (n = 7) | BEC | 30 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 1.02 ± 0.79 | NCmp: 14.1 ± 12.3 | NR | NR | NCmp: 27.0 ± 7.3 | NCmp, AUC0–last: 33.02 ± 44.20 | [117] |
Red-eared slider turtle (n = 6) | PO | 15 mg/kg SD | NCmp: 0.202 | NCmp: 1.00–4.00 (mean = 1.26) | NR | NR | NCmp: 2.67–9.83 (mean = 5.35) | NCmp: 0.319–7.31 a (mean = 1.21) | [118] |
7. Evaluation of Current Literature and Future Recommendations
8. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Keywords | Related Search Terms |
---|---|
Antifungal | Antifungal, antifungals, antifungal drug, antifungal agent, antifungal agents, antimycotic, antimycotic agent, antimycotic drug, fungistatic agent, mycostatic agent, azole, azoles, clotrimazole, enilconazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole, miconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, polyene, polyenes, amphotericin B, nystatin, macrolide, macrolides, natamycin, nucleotide analogue, nucleotide analogues, flucytosine, allylamine, allylamines, terbinafine, echinocandin, echinocandins, micafungin, administration, route, oral, topical, parenteral, nebulization, nebulized, solution, intravenous |
Avian | Bird, birds, aves, avian, avians |
Efficacy | Effective, effectiveness, therapeutic efficacy, therapeutic action, therapeutics, therapy, treatment effectiveness, treatment efficacy, eliminate, resolution, resolve, susceptible, susceptibility, site, site of infection, skin, systemic, respiratory, |
Exotic | Exotic animal, exotic animals, exotic species, non-native species, non-native animal, non-native animals |
Fungal diseases | Fungal disease, mycosis, fungal infection, fungal infections, fungus infection, mycoses, mycosis infection, mycotic disease, mycotic infection, Aspergillus, aspergillosis, Candida, candidiasis, Cryptococcus, cryptococcosis, Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii, CANV, Chrysosporium, Nannizziopsis, Paranannizziopsis, Ophidiomyces, Ophidiomycosis, snake fungal disease, yellow fungus disease |
Pharmacodynamics Pharmacokinetics | Pharmacokinetic, disposition, absorption, bioavailability, area under the curve, half-life, elimination half-life, absorption half-life, distribution, volume of distribution, metabolism, biotransformation, excretion, elimination, clearance, drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, drug excretion, drug elimination, drug disposition, drug clearance, dosing, dosage, dosing regimen, dosage regimen, therapeutic concentrations, therapeutic drug concentration, therapeutic drug concentrations, drug concentration, drug concentrations, plasma concentration, tissue concentration, systemic availability, pharmacodynamic |
Reptile | Reptilia, reptiles, reptilian, reptilians |
Safety | Adverse effect, adverse effects, adverse event, adverse events, adverse reaction, toxic, toxicity, toxic events |
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Drug Class/Drug | Concentration/Time Dependent | Prolonged PAFE 1 | Best Predictor of Efficacy |
---|---|---|---|
Allylamines | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
Azoles 2 | Time dependent | Yes | AUC (24 h)/MIC |
Echinocandins | Concentration dependent | Yes | Cmax/MIC or AUC/MIC |
Flucytosine (5-FC) | Time dependent | No | T > MIC 3 |
Polyenes 4 | Concentration dependent | Yes | Cmax/MIC |
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Visvanathan, N.; Lim, J.Y.A.; Chng, H.T.; Xie, S. A Critical Review on the Dosing and Safety of Antifungals Used in Exotic Avian and Reptile Species. J. Fungi 2023, 9, 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9080810
Visvanathan N, Lim JYA, Chng HT, Xie S. A Critical Review on the Dosing and Safety of Antifungals Used in Exotic Avian and Reptile Species. Journal of Fungi. 2023; 9(8):810. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9080810
Chicago/Turabian StyleVisvanathan, Naresh, Jolise Yi An Lim, Hui Ting Chng, and Shangzhe Xie. 2023. "A Critical Review on the Dosing and Safety of Antifungals Used in Exotic Avian and Reptile Species" Journal of Fungi 9, no. 8: 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9080810