Seaweed Bioethanol Production: A Process Selection Review on Hydrolysis and Fermentation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Composition of Sugars in Seaweeds
2.1. Green Seaweed (Chlorophyceae)
2.2. Red Seaweed (Rhodophyceae)
2.3. Brown Seaweed (Phaeophyceae)
3. Seaweed Biomass Handling and Pre-Treatment
4. Hydrolysis of Seaweeds
4.1. Dilute Acid Thermal Hydrolysis
4.2. Dilute Alkaline Thermal Hydrolysis
4.3. Enzymatic Hydrolysis
4.4. Other Methods of Hydrolysis
5. Seaweed Fermentation Techniques
5.1. Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)
5.2. Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
5.3. Other Fermentation Methods
5.4. Organisms Used in Fermentation
6. Bioethanol Recovery Processes
7. Conclusions and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(% Dry Biomass) | |||||||
Green | Caulerpa lentillifera | 38.7 | 10.4 | 1.1 | 37.2 | MY/North Borneo | [21] |
Chaetomorpha linum | 54 | - | - | 22 | DK/Roskilde | [17] | |
C. linum | 29.8 | 8.6 | 2.6 | 30.5 | TN/Tunis Lagoon | [22] | |
Codium fragile | 58.7 | 15.3 | 0.9 | 25.1 | S. Korea | [10] | |
Ulva fasciata | 43.0 | 14.4 | 1.8 | 16.0 | IN/Veraval | [15] | |
Ulva lactuca | 54.3 | 20.6 | 6.2 | 18.9 | S. Korea | [3] | |
Ulva pertusa | 52.3 | 25.1 | 0.1 | 22.5 | KR/Jeju Island | [23] | |
Ulva rigida | 53 | 23.4 | 1.2 | 21.7 | MA/Azla | [24] | |
Average | 52 ± 6 | 19 ± 7 | 1.4 ± 1 | 25 ± 9 | - | ||
Red | Chondrus pinnulatus | 64.4 | 22.5 | 0.2 | 12.9 | KR/Ganganri | [25] |
Cryptonemia crenulata | 47 | - | - | 19 | GH/Prampram | [26] | |
Kappaphycus alvarezzi | 60.7 | 17.4 | 0.8 | 21.1 | IN/Bhavnagar | [27] | |
K. alvarezzi | 55 | 23 | VN/Nha Trang | [26] | |||
Eucheuma cottonii | 26.5 | 9.8 | 1.1 | 46.2 | Malaysia | [21] | |
Gelidium amansii | 66.0 | 20.5 | 0.2 | 13.3 | S. Korea | [10] | |
Gigartina tenella | 42.2 | 27.4 | 0.9 | 24.5 | KR/Songdo | [25] | |
Hypnea charoides | 57.3 | 18.4 | 1.5 | 22.8 | CN/Hong Kong | [28] | |
Hypnea musciformis | 39 | - | - | 22 | GH/Old Ningo | [26] | |
H. musciformis Hydropuntia dentata | 37 | - | - | 30 | GH/Prampram | [26] | |
39 | - | - | 36 | GH/Prampram | [26] | ||
Lomentaria hakodatensis | 40.4 | 29 | 0.7 | 29.9 | KR/Ganganri | [25] | |
Average | 57 ± 13 | 22 ± 10 | 1 ± 0.8 | 20 ± 7 | - | ||
Brown | Laminaria digitata (April) | 16.6 | 9.3 | 0.7 | 31.0 | Denmark | [29] |
L. digitata (August) | 64.2 | 3.1 | 1.0 | 11.9 | Denmark | [29] | |
Laminaria japonica | 51.9 | 14.8 | 1.8 | 31.5 | S. Korea | [3] | |
L. japonica | 51.5 | 8.4 | 1.3 | 38.8 | S. Korea | [10] | |
Sargassum fulvellum | 39.6 | 13 | 1.4 | 46 | S. Korea | [3] | |
Sargassum polycystum | 33.5 | 5.4 | 0.3 | 42.4 | Malaysia | [21] | |
Sargassum vulgare | 61.6 | 13.6 | 4.9 | 19.4 | - | [23] | |
Saccharina latissima (April) | 16.8 | 10.1 | 0.5 | 34.6 | Denmark | [29] | |
Average | 55 ± 12 | 12 ± 5 | 1.7 ± 1.4 | 31 ± 12 |
Component | Type of Seaweed | ||
---|---|---|---|
Chlorophyceae (Green) [30,34] | Rhodophyceae (Red) [26,30] | Phaeophyceae (Brown) [35,36,37] | |
Polysaccharide | Cellulose | Cellulose (10%) (Glu(β-1,4)) | Laminarin (Glu(β-1,3)+(β-1,6)) |
Ulvan | Agarose (Gal-LAHGal)n | Mannitol | |
Starch (Glu(α-1,3)+(α-1,6)) | Carrageenan (Gal-DAHGal((β-1,4)+β-1,4)) | Alginate (ManA + GulA) | |
Mannan Xyloglucan | Starch (1–10%) | Fucoidan (Fuc(α-1,3)) | |
Major monosaccharides, sugar alcohols, uronic acids | Glucose | Glucose (11–18%) | Glucose (6–51%) |
Mannose | Galactose (15–30%) | Fucose (2–6%) | |
Uronic acid | Mannitol (4–10%) | ||
Rhamnose | Mannuronic acid (9–17%) | ||
Xylose | Guluronic acid (8–16%) | ||
Glucoronic acid | |||
Minor components 1 | Lignin + Man + Rha + Ara + Xyl + GluA + GulA + GalA | Rha + Ara + Gal + Xyl + Man + GluA | |
Pigments | Chlorophyll | r-phycoerythrin | Xanthophyll |
Seaweed (Type of Seaweed) | DM % v/w | Dilute Acid Treatment | Sugar Released (mg/g DM) 1 | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conc. (M) | Temp. (°C) | Time (min) | RSu | Glu | Gal | |||
U. lactuca (green) | 10 | 0.5 | 121 | 15 | 119 | 53 | 8 | [5] |
Fucus serratus (brown) | 10 | 0.5 | 121 | 15 | 111 | 10 | 9 | [5] |
K. alvarezii (red) | 10 | 0.2 | 130 | 15 | 305 | 256 | [66] | |
G. amansii (red) | 10 | 0.2 | 130 | 15 | 292 | 200 | [65] | |
Gracilaria tenuistipitata (red) | 10 | 0.2 | 130 | 15 | 266 | 187 | [65] | |
Gracilaria chorda (red) | 10 | 0.2 | 130 | 15 | 234 | 136 | [65] | |
Palmaria palmata (red) | 10 | 0.4 | 125 | 25 | 218 | 27 | 128 | [67] |
G. tenuistipitata (red) | 0.0004 | 2 | 100 | 900 | 539 | 36 | 275 | [8] |
Ulva intestinalis (green) | 0.0004 | 2 | 100 | 900 | 50 | 14 | 5 | [8] |
Undaria pinnatifida (brown) | 13 | 0.075 | 121 | 60 | 220 | [43] | ||
Amphiroa fragilissima (red) | 10 | 0.2 | 121 | 15 | 73 | 44 | [67] |
Seaweed Species (Type of Seaweed) | DM % w/v | Dilute Acid (H2SO4) Treatment | Enzymatic Treatment | Sugar Released (mg/g DM) 1 | Ref. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conc. (M) | Temp. (°C) | Time (min) | Cellulase (FPU/g DM) | Time (h) | Temp. (°C) | RSu | Glu | Gal | |||
U. fasciata (green) | 5 | 0.1 | 100 | 60 | 20 (mg protein) | 36 | 45 | 114 | [15] | ||
Gelidium latifolium (red) | 12 | 0.2 | 130 | 15 | 20 | 290 | [63] | ||||
Gracilaria sp. (red) | 20 | 0.05 | 121 | 60 | 10 (mg protein) | 6 | 50 | 315 | 277 | [69] | |
K. alvarezii (red) | 8 | 0.2 | 110 | 90 | 150 | 48 | 50 | 624 | [20] | ||
Palmaria palmate (red) | 10 | 0.2 | 121 | 15 | 164 | [67] | |||||
Gracilaria verrucosa (agar extraction, red) | 10 | none | 20 | 36 | 50 | 390 | [4] | ||||
L. japonica (brown) (residue alginate extractr.) | 10 | 0.01 | 121 | 60 | 45 | 48 | 50 | 278 | [50] | ||
U. pinnatifida (brown) | 13 | 0.075 | 121 | 60 | 2.88 (knu/mL) | 24 | 45 | 255 | [52] |
Seaweed (Type of Seaweed) | Mode of Hydrolysis & Fermentation 1 | Fermentation Conditions | Ethanol Yield 2 | Ref. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organism | Temp. (°C) | pH | Time (h) | Yield (g/100 g) | Yield Basis | Conversion Efficiency (% w/w) | |||
U. fasciata (green) | EH, SHF | S. cerevisiae MTCC 180 | 28 | 12 | 47 | RSu | [16] | ||
U. fasciata (green) | EH, SHF | S. cerevisiae | 28 | 48 | 47 | RSu | 88% | [15] | |
E. cottonii (red) | AH, SHF | S. cerevisiae | 34 | 6.5 | 144 | 33 | RSu | [80] | |
Gracilaria sp. (red) | AH & EH, SHF | S. cerevisiae Wu | 30 | 4.5 | 48 | 47 | RSu | 94% | [69] |
G. amansii (red) | AH, SHF | Brettanomyces custersii | 30 | 7.0 | 39 | 38 | RSu | 74% | [12] |
G. verrucose (red) | AH, SHF | S. cerevisiae HAU | 30 | 6.5 | 36 | 43 | RSu | 84% | [4] |
K. alvarezii (red) | AH, SHF | S. cerevisiae NCIM | 30 | 6.6 | 48 | 53 | RSu | 103% | [62] |
K. alvarezii (red) | AH, SSF | Brewer’s yeast | 30 | 5.0 | 72 | 21 | Gal | 41% | [80] |
L. japonica (brown) | AH & EH, SHF | Escherichia coli KO11 | 30 | 5.5 | 24 | 41 | RSu | 78% | [3] |
L. japonica (brown) | AH & EH, SHF | S. cerevisiae | 30 | 6.5 | 36 | 44 | Glu | [50] | |
Sargassum sp. (brown) | AH & EH, SHF | S. cerevisiae | 40 | 4.5 | 36 | 17 | RSu | 33% | [14] |
K. alvarezii (red) | TH, SSF | S. cerevisiae | 37–46 | 4.8 | 9 | 51 | Glu | 91% | [57] |
S. japonica (green) | AH, SSF | S. cerevisiae | 37–46 | 4.8 | 48 | 34 | Glu | 67% | [32] |
C. linum (green) | WO & EH, SSF | S. cerevisiae | 32 | 4.8 | 200 | 44 | Glu | 77% | [17] |
Sargassum sagamianum (brown) | TH & EH, SHF | P. stipitis CBS7126 | 30 | 7.0 | 44 | RSu | [13] |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Offei, F.; Mensah, M.; Thygesen, A.; Kemausuor, F. Seaweed Bioethanol Production: A Process Selection Review on Hydrolysis and Fermentation. Fermentation 2018, 4, 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4040099
Offei F, Mensah M, Thygesen A, Kemausuor F. Seaweed Bioethanol Production: A Process Selection Review on Hydrolysis and Fermentation. Fermentation. 2018; 4(4):99. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4040099
Chicago/Turabian StyleOffei, Felix, Moses Mensah, Anders Thygesen, and Francis Kemausuor. 2018. "Seaweed Bioethanol Production: A Process Selection Review on Hydrolysis and Fermentation" Fermentation 4, no. 4: 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4040099