Effect of Rhodanese Enzyme Addition on Rumen Fermentation, Cyanide Concentration, and Feed Utilization in Beef Cattle Receiving Various Levels of Fresh Cassava Root
by
, , , ,
Chanadol Supapong
1
,
Sukruthai Sommai
2,
Benjamad Khonkhaeng
3,
Chanon Suntara
2
,
Rittikeard Prachumchai
2,
Kampanat Phesatcha
4
,
Pin Chanjula
5 and
Anusorn Cherdthong
2,*
1
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80240, Thailand
2
Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center (TROFREC), Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
3
Department of Agricultural Technology and Environment, Faculty of Sciences and Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
4
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Technology, Nakhon Phanom University, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand
5
Animal Production Innovation and Management Division, Faculty of Natural Resources, Hat Yai Campus, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fermentation 2022, 8(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8040146
Submission received: 8 March 2022
/
Revised: 23 March 2022
/
Accepted: 25 March 2022
/
Published: 27 March 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Rumen Fermentation Efficiency)
Abstract
:Fresh cassava root is not recommended for animal feeding due to high quantities of hydrocyanic acid (HCN), which produces symptoms of poisoning. The purpose of this study was to find out how a rhodanese enzyme addition affects rumen fermentation, HCN content, feed utilization, and blood metabolites in beef calves fed fresh cassava root. Four Thai native beef cattle with an initial body weight (BW) of 95 ± 10.0 kg (1–1.5 years old) were randomly allocated to receive fresh cassava root containing HCN at 0, 300, 450, and 600 ppm according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Rice straw was the basal diet. The rhodanese enzyme was combined with concentrated feeds at a concentration of 1 mg/104 ppm HCN. The fresh cassava root was cleaned to remove dirt and chopped into 3 to 5 mm sized pieces before being fed to the animals at their various levels. The total feed intake of beef cattle increased when fed with fresh cassava root (p < 0.05). The digestibility of crude protein (CP) was different among various fresh cassava root levels (p < 0.05). Ruminal ammonia-N levels were measured 4 hours after feeding, and the average concentration declined considerably in animals fed fresh cassava root at 300–600 ppm HCN (p < 0.05). Cyanide concentration in the rumen was linearly increased by 270.6% (p < 0.05) when it was supplemented with a high level of fresh cassava root. Blood urea-N concentration was altered and decreased when supplemented with fresh cassava root (p < 0.01). The blood thiocyanate concentration was altered by the levels of fresh cassava root and rhodanese enzyme, which ranged from 4.1 to 27.9 mg/dL (p < 0.01). Cattle given fresh cassava root showed no influence on total volatile fatty acid, acetic acid, or butyric acid concentrations in the rumen (p > 0.05). However, the concentration of propionic acid increased slightly (p < 0.05) 4 hours after feeding. Supplementing fresh cassava root up to 600 ppm HCN/day improved N absorption, retention, and the proportion of N retention to N intake (p < 0.05). Therefore, increasing the inclusion of fresh cassava root with a rhodanese enzyme addition improves total feed intake, CP digestibility, nitrogen utilization, blood thiocyanate, and propionate concentrations, which may remove HCN without harming animal health.
1. Introduction
Cassava chips are produced from the cassava plant’s roots. The root is first chopped in a 0.5–1 cm sieve before being sun dried for 2–3 days. Cassava chips have recently attracted the interest of the scientific community for usage as an energy source for ruminant production in tropical countries. However, the high expense of cassava chips, as well as competition from the human food and biofuel sectors, has led to a continued need for and growing interest in substitute feed ingredients for livestock feeding [1,2]. Because it is less expensive than cassava chips, fresh cassava root is appealing as the main carbohydrate supplement in cattle feeds. However, fresh cassava root is not advised for animal feeding due to high levels of hydrocyanic acid (HCN), which causes symptoms of toxicity [3,4]. HCN is absorbed into the bloodstream as it is released in the rumen. In cytochrome complexes, impermeable complexes form between free CN− and oxidized iron (Fe3+) [5]. As a result, mitochondrial electron transport is inhibited, and the afflicted animals die of anoxia [6]. While huge amounts of HCN are rapidly absorbed, it is exceedingly powerful, and the body’s detoxifying processes are overwhelmed, resulting in death in less than two hours [7]. A previous study found that additional elemental sulfur could reduce HCN when ruminants were fed cassava root HCN sources [8,9,10]. Sulfur was thought to provide a source of substrate for the formation of the rhodanese enzyme in rumen microbial cells [11,12]. Cherdthong et al. [8] revealed that beef cattle fed 1.5% BW fresh cassava root with 2% sulfur in feed block may remove HCN while being harmless to the animal. Furthermore, Supapong et al. [9] found that adding 2% sulfur to a fermented total mixed diet comprising 40% fresh cassava root can lower HCN by 37% after 7 days of ensilage. According to a recent study, replacing cassava chips with fresh cassava root at 100% might improve the rate of HCN disappearance as well as milk production in dairy cows fed 1.5% sulfur in pellet diet [4]. Although feeding fresh cassava root with sulfur may reduce HCN in ruminants, the chemical substance detoxification of HCN considers environmental variations, residue, operational hazards, and the generation of other toxic products for consumers [13]. It has been reported that dietary sulfur can be toxic to animals if consumed in large quantities [14]. Feeding excessive levels of sulfur might result in undesirable consequences such as reduced feed consumption, diarrhea, and muscle spasms, lowering ruminant performance [15]. Furthermore, in ruminants, sulfite, a hazardous intermediate sulfur metabolite, may play a major role in the development of polioencephalomalacia (PEM) lesions [16]. The sulfite ion is a strong nucleophile that can destroy thiamine. Thiamine deficiency appears to be a plausible risk factor in the etiology of PEM caused by excessive sulfur intake [16]. As a consequence, it is more attractive to feed the innovation of fresh cassava root using biological strategies to minimize HCN.
The use of enzymes as feed additives represents one of the most interesting biological approaches to reduce HCN from the fresh cassava root. Enzymes are highly specific, act under milder reaction conditions than traditional chemicals, and are also safe for animals. Rhodanese (EC 2.8.1.1) is one candidate enzyme that might be utilized to remove HCN from cyanogenic plants because it is extremely resistant to a wide range of HCN molecules, implying that it may be more capable of detoxifying HCN than the other enzymes [17,18]. This enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a sulfur atom from a suitable donor (for example, thiosulfate) to HCN, producing the less toxic thiocyanate [19,20]. Rhodanese enzymes were originally used in vitro rumen fermentation research to remove HCN from fresh cassava root [13]. According to Supapong and Cherdthong [13], a rhodanese enzyme addition at 1.0–1.35 mg/104 ppm KCN could reduce in vitro ruminal HCN concentration by 70%. However, the in vivo confirmation of HCN reduction by the rhodanese enzyme has yet to be determined. It was hypothesized that animals consuming HCN from fresh cassava root could have their HCN concentrations reduced by a rhodanese enzyme addition.
The goal of this research was to see how a rhodanese enzyme addition influences rumen fermentation, HCN content, feed utilization, and blood metabolites in beef cattle given fresh cassava root.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Cattle, Treatments, Experimental Design, and Feeding
Four Thai native beef cattle with an initial BW of 95 ± 10.0 kg (1–1.5 years old) were allocated to four treatments to receive fresh cassava root containing HCN at 0, 300, 450, and 600 ppm according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design. A rhodanese enzyme (bovine liver, Type II virtually salt-free, lyophilized powder, 100–300 units/mg solid R1756; Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, MO, USA) was combined with concentrated feeds at a concentration of 1 mg/104 ppm HCN. Enzymes were added to the concentrate (Table 1) during the production process and stored in a 200 liter plastic container, which was then kept at ambient temperature to avoid moisture and sunlight. The concentrate-diet-containing enzyme was prepared for the animal to be fed for 21 days. Animals were given 0.5% BW of a concentrated combination containing a rhodanese enzyme. The fresh cassava root (Manihot esculenta Kasetsart 50) was obtained from a local farmer in Thailand’s Khon Kaen province. The fresh cassava root was cleaned to remove dirt and chopped into 3 to 5 mm sized pieces before being fed to the animals at their various levels. Fresh cassava root was given at levels of 0, 3, 4.5, and 6 kg fresh matter, with each level having HCN at 0, 300, 450, and 600 ppm, respectively. Fresh cassava root and concentrate were served twice daily, at 0700 and 1600. The animals were tested and given fresh cassava root intake before the study began, and at 6 kg fresh matter, they were completely consumed. As a result, no refusals of fresh cassava root were observed. The animals received rice straw ad libitum allowing for 100 g/kg refusals. All animals were constantly provided with clean freshwater. Cattle were housed separately in individual pens. The study was carried out over four 21-day intervals. During the first 14 days, all cattle were fed their respective diets ad libitum, whereas during the last 7 days, they were moved to metabolism crates for total urine and fecal collection. During these days, they were restricted to 90% of their previous voluntary straw feed intake.
2.2. Data Collection and Chemical Analysis
Feed samples, as well as refusal samples, were collected on the final 7 days of each session. Daily feces and urine amounts were measured and sampled using the total collection method during the last 7 days of each period when the animals were in metabolism cages to investigate feed digestion and nitrogen metabolism. Around 5% of the total fresh weight of fecal samples was collected and separated into two groups. The first portion was used for daily dry matter (DM) determination, whereas the second part was stored in the refrigerator and pooled by the animals at the end of each period for chemical examination. Urine was collected in 10 L jars containing 10% H2SO4 to guarantee that the pH was reduced to 3.0 to prevent microorganism death. Cattle urine was collected at the end of each period for nitrogen analysis and nitrogen balance calculations.
Feeds, refusals, and fecal samples were dried at 60 ℃ and ground (1 mm screen using the Cyclotech Mill, Tecator, Hoganas, Sweden) before being evaluated for DM (ID 967.03), N (ID 984.13), EE (ID 954.02), and ash using AOAC [21] standard techniques (ID 942.05). The acid detergent fiber (ADF) content was measured using an AOAC [21] technique (ID 973.18) and is expressed inclusive of residual ash. The amount of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in samples was determined using Van Soest et al. [22] with the addition of alpha-amylase, but without the addition of sodium sulfite, and the findings are given in terms of residual ash. Apart from chemical composition in feces and feeds, the data were utilized to compute nutritional digestibilities.
A revised version of Fisher and Brown’s [23] picric acid technique was used to measure the amount of HCN in feeds. A linear calibration curve was generated using standard KCN solutions by supplementing 0.1 mL aliquots of a 0.5% solution (w/v) picric acid and 0.25 M Na2CO3 to 0.05 mL aliquots of KCN solutions (after 10 minutes of centrifugation at 15,000 g at 4 °C). The resulting mixtures were heated for 5 minutes before being diluted to 1 mL with 0.85 mL distilled water and refrigerated in tap water for 30 minutes. The absorbance at 520 nm was measured using a spectrophotometer against a blank of distilled water and a picric acid reagent.
Urine samples were evaluated for urinary N using the AOAC’s [21] Kjeldahl technique, and N consumption was estimated. A 21-gauge needle was used to take 10 mL of blood samples from the jugular vein (0 h before feeding and 4 h after feeding), and tubes containing 12 mg of EDTA as an anticoagulant and plasma were separated by centrifugation at 500 g for 10 minutes at 4 °C. Later, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (L type Wako UN, Tokyo, Japan) and blood thiocyanate [24] were detected.
Rumen fluids were collected using a vacuum pump via the esophagus. In any case, the collections were carried out by experienced collectors, who discarded the fluid if saliva was present in order to prevent interfering with the pH value assessment. About 45 mL of rumen fluid was obtained simultaneously as blood was collected. The pH and temperature of the rumen were measured using a portable pH and temperature meter (HANNA Instruments HI 8424 microcomputer, Kallang, Singapore). Four layers of cheesecloth were used to filter rumen fluid samples. 45 mL of rumen fluid was mixed with 5 mL of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The rumen fluid solution was centrifuged at 16,000 g for 15 min and the NH3-N content was determined using a Kjeltech Auto 1030 analyzer (Tecator, Hoganiis, Sweden). High-performance liquid chromatography (instruments by controller water model 600E; water model 484UVdetector; column novapak C18; column size 3.9 mm × 300 mm; mobile phase 10 mM H2PO4 [pH 2.5], Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., MA, USA) was used to determine concentration of total volatile fatty acids (VFA), acetate, propionate, and butyrate. The concentration of HCN in rumen fluids was measured using the same methodology described above.
2.3. Statistical Investigation
Using SAS’s GLM approach, the statistical analysis compensated for the 4 × 4 Latin square design (Cary, NC, USA). The following model was used to analyze the data (Equation (1)):
where: Yijk, animal’s observation j, obtaining a diet i, in period k; μ, the overall mean, Mi, the impact of varying levels of fresh cassava root (i = 1, 2, 3, 4), Aj, the effect of animal (j = 1, 2, 3, 4), Pk, the effect of the period (k = 1, 2, 3, 4), and εijk, the residual effect. The results are shown as mean values with a standard error of the mean. Duncan’s new multiple range test was used to detect differences between treatment means, and differences between means with p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
Yijk = μ + Mi + Aj + Pk + εijk
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Feed Consumption and Digestibility
Table 2 shows the effect of varying quantities of fresh cassava root on feed utilization in cattle. Total feed intake increased when the level of fresh cassava root was increased, which might be due to the fact that fresh cassava root contains soluble carbohydrates, which are particularly appealing to animals. However, when fresh cassava root was supplemented, rice straw consumption decreased considerably (p < 0.01). It is possible that this is because the animals consumed sufficient fresh cassava root to meet their requirements, resulting in a limited consumption of rice straw. The supplementation of fresh cassava root did change the intake of the nutrient. The digestibility of CP varied with the fresh cassava root level and was highest in the 600 ppm HCN-fed group (p < 0.05). This occurred due to the application of fresh cassava root, which can increase the number of proteolytic and fibrolytic bacteria in animals. Rumen bacterial improves when the amount of soluble carbohydrate is increased [25,26]. Furthermore, HCN can be provided as a nitrogen supply for microbial synthesis via enzymes that stimulate HCN conversion via rhodanese and mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase [13]. The inclusion of nitrogen supply with fermentable starch from cassava would be beneficial to the rumen environment and would increase the microbial growth on digestibility [16]. An additional possibility is that fresh cassava root containing HCN might be detoxified by the rhodanese enzyme, resulting in the creation of a less toxic thiocyanate for ruminal microorganisms and high feed CP digestibility by bacteria [17].
3.2. Rumen’s Characteristics and Blood Profiles
Based on the results, after 4 hours post-feeding to beef cattle (Table 3), it was found that the rumen pH ranged from 6.7 to 6.9 and the rumen fluid temperature was 39.1 to 39.2. Ruminal NH3-N levels were measured 4 hours after feeding, and the average concentration declined considerably in animals fed fresh cassava root at 300–600 ppm HCN per day (p < 0.05). This might be because ruminal microbes use NH3-N as a building element and glucose as an energy source. As a result, the use of NH3-N with the supplied starch for microbial protein synthesis is possible [27,28]. Supapong et al. [9] found that beef cattle given a fermented total mixed diet comprising fresh cassava root had the lowest ruminal NH3 -N content when supplemented with fresh cassava root. Cyanide concentration in the rumen was linearly increased by 270.6% (p < 0.05) when it was supplemented with a high level of fresh cassava root. Detoxification of HCN is efficient in healthy, well-fed animals, primarily through the conversion of HCN to thiocyanate [3,4]. The conversion to thiocyanate requires a sulfur donor (such as thiosulfate) and is brought about by the enzyme rhodanese, which occurs in adequate amounts in animal tissues, especially the liver [11,12]. Rhodaneses are well conserved and ubiquitous enzymes that are thought to be one of the HCN-detoxifying mechanisms that developed [29].
Blood urea-N concentration was altered and decreased when supplemented with fresh cassava root (p < 0.01), which correlates with NH3-N in the rumen. This might be due to ruminal NH3-N being particularly beneficial for microbial protein synthesis when paired with starch from fresh cassava root and sulfur, resulting in a variable BUN level [30]. This discovery is related to nitrogen use and microbial protein synthesis. The HCN produced in the rumen was promptly absorbed through the rumen wall into the circulation, where it was detoxified via the production of thiocyanate in the liver [2]. The blood thiocyanate concentration was altered by the levels of fresh cassava root and rhodanese enzyme, which ranged from 4.1 to 27.9 mg/dL (p < 0.01). So far, only rhodanese has been found to have the ability to detoxify HCN [31]. Rhodanese is a sulfurtransferase that catalyzes the reaction of HCN and thiosulphate or another appropriate sulfur donor to the less hazardous thiocyanate. Furthermore, an earlier study has shown that supplementing with sulfur sources increases thiocyanate levels in the blood. Supapong et al. [9] found that when cattle were fed a diet supplement of 2% sulfur in a fermented total mixed ration containing 40% fresh cassava root, blood thiocyanate rose from 13.7 to 15.7 mg/dL. Similarly, Prachumchai et al. [10] discovered that feeding beef cattle 20 g/kg BW fresh cassava root with a pellet containing 30 g/kg sulfur might raise blood thiocyanate levels by 5 mg/dL.
3.3. Concentration of Rumen Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) and their Profiles
Cattle given fresh cassava root showed no influence on total VFA, acetic acid, or butyric acid concentrations in the rumen (p > 0.05). (Table 4). However, the concentration of propionic acid increased slightly (p < 0.05) 4 hours after feeding. Because fresh cassava root contains starch, which is quickly digested into propionate in the rumen, beef cattle given a high dosage of fresh cassava root had a greater ruminal propionate content [25,27]. This could provide sufficient substrate for improved CP digestibility and could lead to carbon-skeleton to microbial synthesis. Supapong et al. [9] discovered that adding fermentable carbohydrates to beef cattle diets boosted propionate concentrations in the rumen. Similarly, Cherdthong et al. [8] noted that beef cattle supplemented with fresh cassava root at 1.5% BW could increase propionate by 15.4%. Cassava has the potential to increase the use of cattle feed and make the degradation process easier [4,30].
3.4. Nitrogen Utilization
Cattle fed with fresh cassava root showed differences in N intake and total N excretion (p < 0.05). Cattle N intake increased from 33.5 to 40.0 g/d when fresh cassava root supplementation was increased (Table 5). This might be because increasing fresh cassava root may also impact rumen motility and the bacterial digestibility of the diet [4,8]. The primary consequences of reduced N consumption are increased supplemental protein expenditures to compensate for considerable ruminal wastes of feed proteins and excessive N excretion in urine, which may contribute to N contamination of the environment [25,26]. Animals fed 600 ppm fresh cassava root had decreased urine excretion, with 0.55 L being lower than those fed no fresh cassava root. This might be because a large intake of fresh cassava root leads to a low consumption of water, resulting in a low output of urine [32,33]. Furthermore, supplementing fresh cassava root up to 600 ppm HCN/day improved N absorption, retention, and the proportion of N retention to N intake (p < 0.05). These values show that the animals were all in a positive nitrogen balance. Fresh cassava root may offer an appropriate rate of nonstructural carbohydrate breakdown, hence providing a beneficial substrate for microorganism growth when nitrogen is available [14]. The quantity of energy available from the diet influences the microbiological requirement for ammonia. Adequate energy must be supplied for ruminal microorganisms to utilize ammonia successfully [34]. According to Supapong et al. [9], the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis was shown to be higher in groups treated with fresh cassava root. This might be because increased soluble carbohydrate resulted in higher N utilization, demonstrating that carbohydrate is positively associated with N absorption [33,34].
4. Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, it is possible to infer that increasing the inclusion of fresh cassava root with a rhodanese enzyme addition at 1 mg/104 ppm HCN increases total feed intake, CP digestibility, nitrogen utilization, and propionate concentration. Furthermore, a rhodanese enzyme addition may reduce HCN and increase blood thiocyanate content. As a result, HCN-containing fresh cassava root may be supplemented with a rhodanese enzyme addition, which could eliminate HCN without harming animal health. Further research should be conducted on dairy cows to determine the effect of HCN-containing feedstuffs added with rhodanese enzymes on milk output.
Author Contributions
Planning and design of the study, C.S. (Chanadol Supapong) and A.C.; conducting and sampling, C.S. (Chanadol Supapong) and A.C.; sample analysis, C.S. (Chanadol Supapong); statistical analysis, C.S. (Chanadol Supapong) and A.C.; manuscript drafting, C.S. (Chanadol Supapong) and A.C.; manuscript editing and finalizing, C.S. (Chanadol Supapong), S.S., B.K., C.S. (Chanon Suntara), R.P., K.P., P.C. and A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
The authors express their sincerest gratitude to the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) (Grant No. NRCT5-RSA63003-01) for providing financial support. The Research Program on the Research and Development of Winged Bean Root Utilization as Ruminant Feed (RP64-6/002), Increase Production Efficiency and Meat Quality of Native Beef and Buffalo Research Group and Research and Graduate Studies, Khon Kaen University (KKU), were also acknowledged. Chanadol Supapong was granted a postdoctoral training fellowship from the Graduate Studies, KKU (PD2563-02-16).
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted under approval Record No. IACUC-KKU-45/64 (issued on 22 April 2021) of Animal Ethics and Care issued by KKU.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express sincere thanks to the Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center (TROFREC), Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, KKU for the use of the research facilities.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Table 1.
Ingredient and chemical composition of concentrate diet, fresh cassava root, and rice straw (%DM).
Table 1.
Ingredient and chemical composition of concentrate diet, fresh cassava root, and rice straw (%DM).
| Item | Concentrate | Fresh Cassava Root | Rice Straw |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ingredients, % DM | |||
| Soybean meal | 9.7 | ||
| Palm kernel meal | 10.0 | ||
| Corn meal | 62.3 | ||
| Rice bran | 15.0 | ||
| Molasses | 2.0 | ||
| Minerals and vitamins 1 | 1 | ||
| Chemical composition | |||
| Dry matter, % | 88.2 | 37.1 | 97.2 |
| Organic matter, %DM | 90.5 | 38.0 | 90.1 |
| Crude protein, %DM | 12.0 | 2.31 | 2.4 |
| Neutral detergent fiber, %DM | 44.2 | 72.0 | 65.2 |
| Acid detergent fiber, %DM | 9.6 | 47.8 | 55.1 |
| Hydrocyanic acid, ppm DM | 5.1 | 100.6 | - |
1 Contains per kilogram premix: 10,000,000 IU vitamin A; 70,000 IU vitamin E; 1,600,000 IU vitamin D; 50 g iron; 40 g zinc; 40 g manganese; 0.1 g cobalt; 10 g copper; 0.1 g selenium; 0.5 g iodine. A rhodanese enzyme (bovine liver, Type II virtually salt-free, lyophilized powder, 100–300 units/mg solid R1756; Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, MO, USA) was combined with concentrated feeds at a concentration of 1 mg/104 ppm HCN.
Table 2.
Influence of different levels of fresh cassava root on feed intake, nutrient intake, and apparent digestibility in Thai native beef cattle.
Table 2.
Influence of different levels of fresh cassava root on feed intake, nutrient intake, and apparent digestibility in Thai native beef cattle.
| Item | Level Hydrocyanic Acid in Fresh Cassava Root (ppm) | SEM | Contrast | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 300 | 450 | 600 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| DM intake | |||||||
| Rice straw | |||||||
| kg/day | 2.6 a | 1.9 b | 2.1 ab | 1.8 b | 0.39 | 0.02 | 0.24 |
| g/kg BW0.75 | 76.2 a | 54.1 b | 62.5 ab | 51.5 b | 2.30 | 0.03 | 0.33 |
| Concentrate | |||||||
| kg/day | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 0.20 | 0.60 | 0.56 |
| g/kg BW0.75 | 33.6 | 31.1 | 32.7 | 32.3 | 0.84 | 0.47 | 0.21 |
| Fresh cassava root | |||||||
| kg/day | 0.0 a | 3.0 b | 4.5 c | 6.0 d | 0.25 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| g/kg BW0.75 | 0.0 a | 31.9 b | 54.9 c | 66.1 d | 1.40 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| Total intake | |||||||
| kg/day | 3.7 a | 4.0 a | 4.8 b | 5.1 b | 0.37 | 0.01 | 0.09 |
| g/kg BW0.75 | 109.3 a | 117.2 a | 150.2 b | 149.8 b | 2.26 | 0.01 | 0.45 |
| Nutrient intake, kg/d | |||||||
| Dry matter | 3.7 a | 4.0 a | 4.8 b | 5.1 b | 0.39 | 0.01 | 0.54 |
| Organic matter | 3.0 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 0.42 | 0.67 | 0.30 |
| Crude protein | 0.21 a | 0.23 b | 0.25 c | 0.25 c | 0.34 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| Neutral detergent fiber | 2.2 a | 2.43 a | 3.03 b | 3.2 b | 0.36 | 0.01 | 0.71 |
| Acid detergent fiber | 1.6 a | 1.6 a | 2.1 b | 2.2 b | 0.32 | 0.01 | 0.73 |
| Digestibility coefficients | |||||||
| Dry matter | 0.67 | 0.70 | 0.68 | 0.71 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.77 |
| Organic matter | 0.72 | 0.74 | 0.73 | 0.74 | 0.12 | 0.63 | 0.93 |
| Crude protein | 0.60 a | 0.62 ab | 0.63 ab | 0.66 b | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.06 |
| Neutral detergent fiber | 0.61 | 0.62 | 0.63 | 0.61 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.46 |
| Acid detergent fiber | 0.35 | 0.36 | 0.35 | 0.33 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.26 |
a,b,c,d Means in the same row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of mean. BW0.75: metabolic body weight.
Table 3.
Ruminal fermentation and blood metabolites of cattle fed fresh cassava root.
| Item | Level Hydrocyanic Acid in Fresh Cassava Root (ppm) | SEM | Contrast | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 300 | 450 | 600 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| Rumen ecology | |||||||
| Ruminal pH | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 7.2 | 7.2 | 7.2 | 7.0 | 0.32 | 0.33 | 0.32 |
| 4 h post feeding | 6.9 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 6.8 | 0.33 | 053 | 0.22 |
| Ruminal temperature, °C | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 39.3 | 39.2 | 39.2 | 39.3 | 0.30 | 0.74 | 0.51 |
| 4 h post feeding | 39.2 | 39.2 | 39.1 | 39.2 | 0.18 | 0.94 | 0.67 |
| NH3-N concentration, mg/dL | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 13.6 | 14.2 | 12.1 | 12.7 | 0.31 | 0.19 | 0.88 |
| 4 h post feeding | 17.0 a | 16.4 ab | 15.4 ab | 12.9 b | 0.91 | 0.02 | 0.11 |
| Cyanide concentration, ppm | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 0.52 | 0.60 | 0.93 | 1.3 | 0.52 | 0.08 | 0.67 |
| 4 h post feeding | 0.17 a | 0.46 a | 0.79 ab | 1.6 b | 0.55 | 0.02 | 0.46 |
| Blood urea-N concentration, mg/dL | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 7.3 | 3.0 | 4.9 | 1.3 | 1.75 | 0.09 | 0.86 |
| 4 h post feeding | 9.0 a | 4.7 b | 2.3 c | 2.0 c | 0.78 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
| Blood thiocyanate concentration, mg/dL | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 3.9 a | 15.5 ab | 14.7 ab | 32.1 b | 2.22 | 0.01 | 0.58 |
| 4 h post feeding | 4.1 a | 17.2 b | 20.6 bc | 27.9 c | 1.49 | 0.01 | 0.23 |
a,b,c Means in the same row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of mean.
Table 4.
Concentrations of total volatile fatty acid and VFA profiles of Thai native beef cattle fed with various levels of fresh cassava root.
Table 4.
Concentrations of total volatile fatty acid and VFA profiles of Thai native beef cattle fed with various levels of fresh cassava root.
| Item | Level Hydrocyanic Acid in Fresh Cassava Root (ppm) | SEM | Contrast | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 300 | 450 | 600 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| Total VFA, mmol/L | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 88.7 | 90.5 | 97.1 | 86.8 | 2.50 | 0.98 | 0.36 |
| 4 h post feeding | 96.4 | 94.9 | 104.9 | 99.1 | 1.97 | 0.33 | 0.60 |
| VFA profiles, mol/100 mol | |||||||
| Acetic acid | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 76.9 | 74.3 | 71.9 | 74.6 | 1.26 | 0.24 | 0.15 |
| 4 h post feeding | 67.9 | 63.5 | 63.6 | 65.6 | 1.31 | 0.41 | 0.11 |
| Propionic acid | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 12.1 | 13.9 | 16.6 | 14.9 | 1.30 | 0.19 | 0.34 |
| 4 h post feeding | 21.9 a | 24.5 ab | 25.7 b | 24.4 ab | 0.88 | 0.04 | 0.05 |
| Butyric acid | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 10.9 | 11.7 | 11.5 | 10.4 | 1.24 | 0.80 | 0.57 |
| 4 h post feeding | 10.3 | 11.9 | 10.8 | 9.9 | 1.06 | 0.68 | 0.31 |
| Acetic: Propionic acid ratio | |||||||
| 0 h post feeding | 6.5 | 5.6 | 4.9 | 5.1 | 0.88 | 0.20 | 0.44 |
| 4 h post feeding | 3.1 a | 2.6 ab | 2.5 b | 2.7 ab | 0.39 | 0.09 | 0.05 |
a,b Means in the same row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of mean.
Table 5.
Effects of different levels of fresh cassava root on feed intake and N utilization of Thai native beef cattle.
Table 5.
Effects of different levels of fresh cassava root on feed intake and N utilization of Thai native beef cattle.
| Item | Level Hydrocyanic Acid in Fresh Cassava Root (ppm) | SEM | Contrast | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 300 | 450 | 600 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| N intake, g/day | 33.5 a | 36.8 b | 40.0 c | 40.0 c | 0.72 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
| Total N excretion, g/day | 12.5 a | 14.9 b | 16.8 c | 15.8 bc | 0.62 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| Fecal excretion, g/day | |||||||
| Output, kg/day | 1.3 a | 1.2 a | 1.6 b | 1.5 ab | 0.29 | 0.03 | 0.67 |
| Total N, g/day | 8.2 | 8.1 | 10.3 | 8.7 | 0.91 | 0.35 | 0.43 |
| Total N/N excretion | 65.7 | 53.9 | 61.2 | 60.1 | 2.12 | 0.65 | 0.28 |
| Urinary excretion | |||||||
| Output, L/day | 1.2 a | 0.85 ab | 0.98 ab | 0.65 b | 0.34 | 0.04 | 0.92 |
| Total N, g/day | 4.3 | 6.9 | 6.6 | 6.3 | 0.88 | 0.15 | 0.13 |
| Total N/N excretion | 34.3 | 46.1 | 38.8 | 39.9 | 2.16 | 0.65 | 0.28 |
| N absorption, g/day | 25.3 a | 28.7 b | 29.8 b | 30.6 b | 0.81 | 0.01 | 0.09 |
| N retention, g/day | 20.9 a | 21.9 ab | 23.2 ab | 24.2 b | 0.82 | 0.01 | 0.99 |
| Percentage of N retention to N intake | 62.5 | 59.5 | 58.0 | 60.5 | 1.10 | 0.22 | 0.06 |
| Rumen microbial protein yield, g/d | 217.3 | 215.3 | 224.4 | 239.1 | 3.42 | 0.20 | 0.50 |
a,b,c Means in the same row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of mean.
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Supapong, C.; Sommai, S.; Khonkhaeng, B.; Suntara, C.; Prachumchai, R.; Phesatcha, K.; Chanjula, P.; Cherdthong, A. Effect of Rhodanese Enzyme Addition on Rumen Fermentation, Cyanide Concentration, and Feed Utilization in Beef Cattle Receiving Various Levels of Fresh Cassava Root. Fermentation 2022, 8, 146. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8040146
AMA Style
Supapong C, Sommai S, Khonkhaeng B, Suntara C, Prachumchai R, Phesatcha K, Chanjula P, Cherdthong A. Effect of Rhodanese Enzyme Addition on Rumen Fermentation, Cyanide Concentration, and Feed Utilization in Beef Cattle Receiving Various Levels of Fresh Cassava Root. Fermentation. 2022; 8(4):146. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8040146
Chicago/Turabian StyleSupapong, Chanadol, Sukruthai Sommai, Benjamad Khonkhaeng, Chanon Suntara, Rittikeard Prachumchai, Kampanat Phesatcha, Pin Chanjula, and Anusorn Cherdthong. 2022. "Effect of Rhodanese Enzyme Addition on Rumen Fermentation, Cyanide Concentration, and Feed Utilization in Beef Cattle Receiving Various Levels of Fresh Cassava Root" Fermentation 8, no. 4: 146. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8040146
APA StyleSupapong, C., Sommai, S., Khonkhaeng, B., Suntara, C., Prachumchai, R., Phesatcha, K., Chanjula, P., & Cherdthong, A. (2022). Effect of Rhodanese Enzyme Addition on Rumen Fermentation, Cyanide Concentration, and Feed Utilization in Beef Cattle Receiving Various Levels of Fresh Cassava Root. Fermentation, 8(4), 146. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8040146
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