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Review

Influence of Pre-Harvest Factors on the Storage of Fresh Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.): A Review

by
Michele Ciriello
1,*,
Petronia Carillo
2,
Matteo Lentini
1 and
Youssef Rouphael
1
1
Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Portici, Italy
2
Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(3), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030326
Submission received: 4 February 2025 / Revised: 12 March 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 16 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Horticulturae—Recent Outcomes and Perspectives)
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Abstract

:
Thanks to its numerous uses in gastronomy, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, basil (Ocimum spp.) is one of the most studied and consumed aromatic plants worldwide. However, its commercialization and availability are limited by its short post-harvest shelf-life, primarily due to its strong sensitivity to cold, poor handling, and consequent microbial contamination. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest research on pre-harvest techniques that can extend the shelf-life of basil, aiming to offer a practical tool for growers, distributors, retailers, and scientists. In addition to influencing the plant’s primary metabolism, pre-harvest factors, such as genotype selection, plant nutrition, irrigation, and light management, can have a direct impact on basil quality and shelf-life. Unlike previous reviews, which primarily focus on post-harvest strategies, this work provides a structured analysis of pre-harvest factors that directly influence basil’s shelf-life. By integrating recent findings on genotype selection, nutrient management, and environmental conditions, we offer a comprehensive framework to guide future agronomic practices aimed at minimizing post-harvest losses and enhancing product quality.

1. Introduction

Busy lifestyles have driven today’s consumers to increasingly prefer and consume fresh-cut vegetables. In addition to being ready to use, these products fully support the desire to pursue balanced and healthy dietary regimes. A balanced diet improves mental and physical well-being and reduces the risk of incurring diseases, thereby improving life expectancy [1]. In recent years, fresh herbs have also become a successful option in the established fresh-cut market. To maintain their freshness and ensure their safety for a longer period, herbs destined for the fresh-cut market are minimally processed. The multitude of antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory compounds found in aromatic herbs has granted many of them the reputation of “medicinal plants” [2]. Basil (Ocimum spp.) is undoubtedly one of the most profitable and widely cultivated aromatic herbs in the world, earning the title of “king of herbs” [3]. Like other aromatic plants, basil belongs to the extensive Lamiaceae family. Its importance is primarily due to its richness in secondary compounds, especially fragrant aromatic molecules (terpenes, phenylpropanoids, sesquiterpenes, alcohols, etc.) and phenolic acids, which are highly sought after by both the agri-food and pharmaceutical industries [4]. Although the term basil often refers to the Genovese type, the Ocimum genus is characterized by enormous genetic variability, defining different types of basil with distinct leaf colors, shapes, and phytochemical profiles. The commercial importance of Genovese basil is tied to its culinary application, being the main ingredient of the famous pesto sauce [5,6]. Although Genovese basil is currently universally recognized as the most important type of basil, the genus Ocimum is characterized by vast genetic diversity. Among the 150 species distributed in the tropical and subtropical areal regions, O. gratissimum (L.), O. basilicum × citriodorum, O. americanum (L.), O. minimo (L.), O. basilicum (L.) and O. tenuiflorum (L.) are the most widely cultivated basil species especially for their role in gastronomy [7].
Regardless of the type and use, basil is sold as fresh leaves; therefore, preserving its aromatic characteristics, texture, and freshness is essential. The delicate harvesting and storage steps can result in mechanical injury of basil leaves, which, as reported by Farneti, et al. [8], would alter the flavor and aroma profile. The same author pointed out that inadequate storage practices for such leafy vegetables can also result in quality degradations on basil aromaticity. Specifically, mechanical damage caused in the delicate harvesting and packaging stages results in water and nutrient losses that can compromise the long-term shelf-life of the entire package [9].
Although the definition of shelf-life is constantly evolving, generally, the shelf-life of a leafy vegetable is defined as the period from harvest until the appearance of evident signs that limit its edibility (appearance of necrotic spots on 30–50% of the total leaf area) [10,11]. Such evaluations can be conducted using visual, physiological, or chemical methodologies. Visual evaluations, which are quick and economical, are the most commonly used but are limited to the aesthetic assessment of the product [12]. Microbiological analyses (chemical methodology) are more suitable for food safety control, allowing the quantification of microbial growth. In any case, it should be pointed out that the post-harvest shelf-life of agricultural products should also be determined based on flavor rather than solely on aesthetic and texture characteristics. Not surprisingly, as reported in the literature, flavor and aroma quality can have a shorter shelf-life than visual characteristics [13]. In the specific case of basil, the most important quality aspect for consumers is the aromatic and flavor profile [14]. The heterogeneous mix of terpenes and phenylpropanoids that characterize the different types of basil generally decreases with prolonged storage time. Additionally, unlike other leafy vegetables (such as lettuce, spinach, mint, etc.), basil does not have an inverse relationship between temperature and shelf-life, being very sensitive to low temperatures due to its tropical origin [15]. It is widely reported in the literature that storing basil leaves at temperatures below 10 °C can cause severe damage, compromising the product’s marketability [12]. Symptoms of chilling injury in basil are primarily related to the appearance of necrotic spots on the leaf surface. Low temperatures cause malfunctioning of the cell membrane due to the transition of the membrane’s lipid bilayer from a liquid to a gel phase [16]. In addition, cold damage triggers oxidative phenomena in lipids and beyond, mediated by an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) [17]. As argued by Maalekuu, et al. [18], lipid oxidation is mainly attributable to the action of lipoxygenase (LOX). Generally, the most common substrates are linolenic acid and linoleic acid, which degrade to produce peroxide ions and malondialdehyde (MDA), both indicators of chilling injury. Oxidative processes triggered by low storage temperatures may also be partly attributable to decreased activity of major plant antioxidant enzymes such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) [19]. On the other hand, the browning and/or blackening processes reconnected to chilling injury are produced by catechol oxidase and peroxidase (POD). Both enzymes, using quinones and/or phenols as substrates, trigger the browning reactions by producing hydrogen peroxide [19]. During storage, the advancement of physiological processes such as respiration and transpiration markedly affect the quality and storability of fresh horticultural products such as basil [20,21]. Respiration accelerates the senescence of plant tissues resulting in texture losses of fresh produce. In the presence of oxygen (O2), respiration drives the oxidative breakdown processes of macromolecules such as starch, sugars, and organic acids into simpler molecules such as CO2 and H2O [22]. For this very reason, the main strategies adopted in post-harvest are based on the creation of a microenvironment characterized by low O2 and high CO2 concentration with the ultimate goal of decreasing the rate of respiration and thus prolonging shelf-life [23].
Commercially, basil is often shipped and stored at low temperatures (2–7 °C) along with other agricultural products to minimize the development of diseases and/or physiological alterations [24,25]. The unsustainability of “customized” shipments for this crop necessitates the identification of technologies capable of positively influencing the quality and shelf-life of fresh basil. To address this problem, numerous studies have focused on the impact of post-harvest treatments, neglecting the role of pre-harvest agricultural practices on the final quality and shelf-life. This review is based on the hypothesis that pre-harvest agricultural practices can significantly influence basil’s physiological responses to post-harvest conditions. We aim to critically assess the current knowledge on this subject and identify the most effective agronomic strategies for extending basil’s shelf-life while preserving its sensory and nutritional qualities. In line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the European Union has set a target to reduce food waste by 50% by 2030 at the latest [26]. For basil as well as other agricultural products, most of the waste is produced at the end of the food chain (consumer). Better shelf-life and durability could significantly reduce this problem. One of the most studied strategies is to shorten the distance between producers and consumers (short supply chain) [27], but at the same time, the use of pre-harvest practices calibrated to specific crop needs could be a winning solution. Despite growing interest in improving basil’s storage potential, existing studies often address individual factors in isolation, lacking an integrative perspective. This review consolidates findings from different agronomic disciplines, emphasizing the interactions among genotype, nutrition, irrigation, and environmental conditions, and their combined impact on shelf-life stability By structuring this review around key pre-harvest factors, we aim to bridge the gap between fundamental research and practical applications, providing actionable insights for both scientific and commercial stakeholders.

2. Genetic Material

Just as with productive performance and qualitative characteristics (pigmentation, aromatic, and phenolic profile), genetic background is the most impactful pre-harvest factor on basil’s shelf-life. Variations in phytochemical profiles, both in terms of quality and quantity, could lead to different responses to cold damage. Based on this hypothesis, Rodeo and Mitcham [15] evaluated the cold sensitivity of five different types of basil [three species of Ocimum basilicum (‘Genovese’, ‘Sweet Thai’, and ‘Purple Petra’), one species of O. tenuiflorum (‘Holy’), and a hybrid of O. americanum and O. basilicum × citriodorum (‘Lemon’)]. The experimental protocol proposed by Rodeo and Mitcham [15] involved storing basil leaves in the dark for 6 days at three different temperatures (5, 10, and 15 °C). Regardless of the temperature, the authors confirmed the close link between genetic material expression and cold damage sensitivity due to the involvement of antioxidant systems that counteract ROS production triggered by cold. Specifically, “Genovese” and “Lemon” basil were significantly more sensitive to low temperatures compared to “Sweet Thai”, “Holy”, and “Purple Petra”. Similar results were reported by Ciriello, et al. [28], who evaluated the durability up to the ninth day of six different types of basil [Thai (Ocimum basilicum L. var. thyrsiflora), Mexican (Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Cinnamon), Black (Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Dark Opal), Genovese (Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Italiano Classico), Lemon (Ocimum × citriodorum), and Mexican Purple (Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Purple Ruffle)] stored at 10 °C. Although no significant differences in water loss were observed during the first 3 days of storage, by the end of the experiment (ninth day), Thai and Mexican types stood out for their lower water loss, while Lemon and Genovese types were again the most sensitive. The morphological measurements proposed by the authors suggest an additional “positive trait” for basil durability, namely leaf mass area (LMA). The lower water loss recorded in the Thai and Mexican types was correlated with higher constitutive values of LMA, as this characteristic would ensure better control over water loss during the storage period, especially at low temperatures.
Cozzolino et al. [13] observed variability in the response to chilling injury of three basil cultivars of the same type. Specifically, the three sweet basil cultivars (“Italico a foglia larga”, “Cammeo”, and “Italiano classico”) were refrigerated at temperatures of 4 and 12 °C for a maximum period of 9 days. Although the temperature of 12 °C was the most favorable for all three cultivars, the cultivar “Italico a foglia larga” was less susceptible to chilling injury. Differently from “Cammeo” and “Italiano classico”, the “Italico a foglia larga” cultivar showed less electrolyte loss during storage at 4 °C, suggesting a superior response to cold storage conditions. Not surprisingly, as reported in the literature, a significant loss of cell membrane integrity and, consequently, a more significant loss of electrolytes is assumed to be the main effect of chilling damage [19,29,30]. In the same study, Cozzolino et al. [13] confirmed that preserving basil at low temperatures (4 °C) negatively affects aromatic quality due to lower emission of volatile compounds. As West [31] reported on mint species (Mentha L.), the reduction in the content of volatile compounds during the storage period could be attributable to drastic changes in the ultrastructure of the glands.
Results reported by Silva et al. [24] and Cantwell and Reid [32] showed that as days of storage progressed, basil leaves experienced a decline in their characteristic aromaticity and a gradual degradation of the chlorophyll content. Based on aesthetic attributes, Cantwell and Reid [32] also compared sweet basil leaves stored at 0, 10, and 20 °C, finding that basil preserved at an intermediate temperature (10 °C) had a better visual appearance.
Cozzolino et al. [13] identified the secondary metabolite 1–8 cineole as a likely marker of early diagnosis of chilling injury, as even before symptoms were visible, they recorded a significant reduction in the presence of this secondary metabolite in all cultivars (“Italico a foglia larga”, “Cammeo”, and “Italiano classico”). On the same cultivars, Fratianni, et al. [33] evaluated at 0, 3, 6, and 9 days the qualitative and physiological changes of basil leaves stored at 4 and 12 °C. Although all cultivars stored at 4 °C resulted in the emergence of dark spots (clear symptomatology related to chilling injury), these were more evident in “Italiano classico”. Regardless of genetic material, the significant sensitivity of basil to low temperatures was further confirmed by an increase in ethylene production and in the reduction of total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of basil leaves stored at 4 °C. On the contrary, basil stored at 12 °C, no reduction in phenolic content was observed, suggesting that basil leaves, even after 9 days of storage at the proper temperatures, may still be a good source of valuable secondary metabolites. The conflicting results reported by López-Blancas et al. [34], once again confirm how the importance of genotype choice can also be a useful discriminator for basil when choosing storage temperature. As highlighted by Cozzolino et al. [13] and Fratianni et al. [33], low temperatures pose a significant challenge in storing sweet basil. However, Lòpez-Blancas et al. [34] observed that storing the sweet basil cultivar (Nufar F1) at 5 and 10 °C extended the shelf-life of basil leaves compared to storage at 20 °C. In more detail, basil leaves stored at 5, 10, and 20 °C recorded a shelf-life of 10, 14, and 4 days, respectively. It should also not be overlooked that especially in closed environments, such as PVC packaging, low storage temperatures (10 °C) can significantly reduce yeast and mold contamination. Relative to basil leaves stored at low temperatures (5 °C), weight loss as well as ethylene production remained low until the 12th day of storage. At the same time, the aromatic quality (measured by a hedonic scale) was noticeable until the fourteenth day [34].
Beyond the genetic component, the interaction between genotype and environment can significantly influence basil’s characteristics. Various treatments have been shown to modify these traits, improving shelf-life and post-harvest quality, as shown in the following paragraphs and summarized in Table 1.

3. Nutrition and Irrigation Management

Plant nutrition management practices are generally aimed at maximizing yield, often overlooking their influence on the chemical composition of plants and, consequently, their storability. Assuming that high nitrogen (N) levels can reduce the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, Mahlangu et al. [35] observed that the application of sub-optimal N doses (60 kg ha−1) resulted in a significant increase in phenolic compounds and an improvement in basil’s storability, although at the expense of yield. Regarding the hydroponic cultivation of Genovese basil, the integration of silicon (Si) in the nutrient solution (75 ppm) reduced cold damage without negatively affecting plant morphology [36]. Similarly, agronomic biofortification protocols with selenium (Se) integration (as sodium selenate at a dose of 4 mg L−1) showed improved post-harvest quality in Genovese basil (cv. Tigullio), mainly attributed to a reduction in ethylene production and an increase in the biosynthesis of antioxidant compounds such as rosmarinic acid [37]. Reducing irrigation volumes is a widely used practice to increase the production of phytochemicals in aromatic plants [52,53]. Whether controlled or not, the magnitude and duration of water stress determine yield reductions that vary according to species sensitivity. Bekhradi, et al. [54] highlighted that a reduction in irrigation volumes by up to 25% of field capacity did not negatively affect the visual appearance of basil during the storage period. However, Jordàn et al. [39] emphasized the importance of genetic material, observing that controlled water stress (75% and 50% of field capacity) led to a depletion of the aromatic profile in Genovese basil (cv. Dolly) but not in Iranian green basil after 7 days of storage at 12 °C. Luna et al. [40] observed that, regardless of genetic material, water stress (75% and 50% of field capacity) significantly increased the concentration of phenolic acids during the storage period compared to plants grown under optimal irrigation conditions. Similarly, mild or moderate saline stress can improve pre- and post-harvest quality at the expense of lower yields. Bekharadi et al. [54] found that salinity conditions (40 and 80 mM NaCl) reduced leaf browning in Iranian green basil during storage and increased the content of phenolic acids. These results were confirmed by Ciriello et al. [45] in a study on three types of hydroponic basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. thyrsiflora; Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Cinnamon; and Ocimum × citriodorum), where NaCl-induced saline stress (60 mM) modulated the production of polyphenolic compounds in a genotype-dependent manner. Based on the reported findings, carefully modulating irrigation and nutrient management could be a strategic approach to enhancing basil’s post-harvest resilience. Inducing mild stress (eustress) has shown the potential to stimulate the production of secondary metabolites without compromising overall yield. Additionally, targeted water and nutrient supply adjustments can strengthen the plant’s tolerance to storage conditions by promoting antioxidant accumulation and regulating key metabolic pathways. To effectively implement these strategies, it will be crucial to draft specific protocols that take into account genetic material, growing conditions (open field, protected environment and soilless) and their mutual interactions.

4. Application of Chemical Substances

The exogenous application of different types of chemicals is one of the most innovative pre-harvest strategies useful for reducing chilling injury symptomatology and thus preserving the shelf-life of agricultural products. Albornoz et al. [47] evaluated on Genovese basil leaves stored for 12 days at 3.5 °C the effects induced by pre-harvest application of melatonin (400 µM). Although the authors did not observe clear differences in electrolyte loss and MDA content (important indicators of lipid oxidation) between treatments, basil leaves previously treated with melatonin were characterized by a better shelf-life. The application of melatonin significantly reduced cold damage in the treated basils compared to the control while preserving the visual and colorimetric characteristics typical of the Genovese type (good greenness and brightness). While the authors hypothesized that melatonin may have triggered an accumulation of osmoprotectants (such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose), considering the increase in TSS content recorded in melatonin-treated leaves stored at 3.5 °C; on the other hand, the morpho-physiological changes recorded before the storage period could account for the different responses of melatonin-treated plants. Always aiming to reduce chilling injury caused by low-temperature storage, Satpute et al. [48] evaluated the effects of pre-harvest application of abscisic acid (ABA) in two basil cultivars (‘Di Genova’ and ‘Nufar’) grown in the greenhouse and open field and subsequently stored at temperatures of 3.5 and 7 °C. Consistent with previous studies reported in this review, basil (both cultivars) grown in the greenhouse showed better shelf-life at 7 °C compared to 3.5 °C. However, basil leaves grown in open field did not show reduced chilling injury when stored at 7 °C. The discrepancy between these results could be due to higher abiotic and/or biotic pressure experienced by plants in open fields. In addition, it cannot be due to the longer time elapsed between harvest and storage for plants grown in the open field. Regardless of the cultivation system and genetic material, the application of 1000 mg L−1 or 1500 mg L−1 of ABA resulted in a significant improvement in shelf-life by reducing the chilling injury observed after 6 and 9 days of storage at 3.5 °C compared with control conditions. These results were further confirmed by analyses of electrolyte loss. Specifically, basil plants treated with ABA and stored at low temperatures had a lower electrolyte loss value than untreated plants. Suamuang et al. [41] demonstrated that, compared to untreated plants, the exogenous application of 5 mM salicylic acid and 5 mM oxalic acid can reduce chilling injury and improve shelf-life of holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum L.) stored for 8 days at 7 °C. The exogenous application of both chemical molecules under study triggered the activation of specific defense mechanisms, delaying the alterations of the lipid fraction of cell membranes [55]. Nevertheless, in the specific case of holy basil, the best results were obtained mainly for plants treated with salicylic acid. Suamuang et al. [41] observed in these plants a significant delay in the degradation of phenolic compounds and an improvement in the antioxidant capacity of the treated leaves subjected to storage at 7 °C. These results explain the better post-harvest performance of salicylic acid-treated holy basil than control basil. Similarly, the study of Supapvanich et al. [42] aimed to evaluate whether and to what extent the application of different doses of salicylic acid (0, 1, 5, and 10 mM) could improve the storage at 7 °C of lemon basil (Ocimum × citriodorum). Although the highest dose of salicylic acid was phytotoxic, the pre-harvest application of 5 mM salicylic acid significantly improved the leaf quality of lemon basil stored at 7 °C. Besides reducing the incidence of chilling injury and MDA content, applying 5 mM salicylic acid delayed the loss of electrolytes and chlorophyll degradation during storage. In light of the limited information on this research topic, the authors suggested that this result may be linked to increased bioactive compounds, suggesting a salicylic acid-induced priming effect.

5. Light Management

The high profitability margin, versatility of use, rapid growth, and excellent harvest index have made basil the most cultivated and studied aromatic plant in vertical farming contexts [49]. Although the primary goal of a super-intensive cultivation system (such as indoor farming) is to optimize yield, numerous studies have focused on how to modulate microclimatic parameters (light and temperature) to improve the production of secondary metabolites and post-harvest quality [56,57]. Light-emitting diode (LED) lights, commonly used in indoor farming systems, have a light spectrum dominated by red and blue light due to the photosynthetic machinery’s effective absorption of these wavelengths (415–480 and 600–700 nm) [58]. However, the integration of green light (480–600 nm) and UV-A light (380–418 nm) can improve productivity and stimulate the synthesis of secondary metabolites (phenolic acids, flavonoids, pigments, etc.) [50,51], indirectly linked to shelf-life. Jensen et al. [43] observed significant improvement in basil’s shelf-life, accompanied by an increased tolerance to low temperatures (6 °C) when sweet basil was grown under red light integrated with green light (80:20) compared to combinations of red and blue light. Increasing blue light ratios did not positively affect basil’s post-harvest performance or cold tolerance [43,59]. The authors suggested that the results might be linked to higher water retention in plants treated with green light, supported by the relationship between stomatal function and tissue water retention. Integrating far-red light (730 nm) may increase basil’s cold tolerance during storage thanks to its impact on plant photosynthetic and morphological capacity (increased height and leaf surface expansion) [44]. Carvalho et al. [4] and Patel et al. [60] confirmed the positive action of far-red light on basil’s morphological characteristics, observing a higher presence of volatile compounds such as eucalyptol and various sesquiterpenes, responsible for the aromatic profile’s quality and complexity. Integrating far-red light significantly increased total sugar and starch content, likely improving basil’s cold tolerance. Light intensity also significantly impacts vegetable production and quality [61,62]. Larsen et al. [46] highlighted that applying higher light intensities (600 μmol m−2 s−1) in vertically grown basil improved fresh biomass, increased dry matter content, and enhanced the visual quality of plants subjected to cold storage (4 and 12 °C) for 6–12 days. These changes were likely attributable to higher levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants (ascorbic acid and rosmarinic acid) and higher soluble sugars and starch contents.

6. Microbiological Safety

As with many leafy vegetables, the consumption of fresh basil requires no further processing (except washing, thawing, and/or reheating), and for this reason, it must necessarily satisfy high standards of microbiological quality [63]. Consumption of foods contaminated with pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli O157:H7 are linked to foodborne illness outbreaks [64]. Contamination processes can occur upstream (pollution of agricultural origin) during (pollution attributable to careless handling in packaging plants) and downstream (pollution attributable to careless handling by consumers) of the production and distribution chain. The growing interest in this issue is related to increases in cases of food poisoning attributable to consumption of contaminated fresh products [65]. Increased demand for fresh horticultural products has stimulated imports, thus increasing the time between harvest and consumption, aspects that negatively impact durability and food safety. Although Chitarra, et al. [66] observed after 60 days after incubation the persistence of E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes on lettuce leaves (cv. Crispilla bianca), no pathogen was recorded on basil (cv. Genovese gigante) suggesting a probable innate antimicrobial protection of that plant. The recent study conducted by Gilbert-Eckman, et al. [67] on the pre-harvest application of cold atmospheric plasma treatments showed the triggering, on basil plants, of a rapid oxidative response that would cause a restructuring of the microbiome of the leaves. In light of the promising results, the authors themselves suggest that the large-scale applicability of this technique would ensure a significant improvement in the microbiological safety of treated products and, thus, better durability. Xylia et al. [68] focused on the antimicrobial effects induced by the exogenous application of an essential oil obtained from Cypriot oregano (O. dubium). In addition to a significant improvement in the antioxidant capacity of basil leaves treated with the essential oil, Xylia et al. [68] observed a significant reduction in the food pathogens studied (Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes). The use of essential oils could provide an alternative sanitation method during delicate post-harvest processing operations by improving food safety. Microbial contamination remains a critical challenge for fresh basil, especially given its minimal processing requirements. Recent advances in pre-harvest interventions, such as the use of essential oil treatments and atmospheric plasma applications, show promise in reducing pathogen load while preserving leaf integrity. Integrating these strategies with improved handling protocols could significantly enhance food safety and shelf-life.

7. Conclusions

As basil is a tropical plant, optimizing post-harvest practices is essential to preserve its durability. Refrigeration basil storage (4–10 °C) is crucial to reduce and/or delay fungal and bacterial attacks. However, low temperatures can irreversibly damage the sensory and visual quality of the leaves, compromising their marketability. Despite numerous efforts to develop post-harvest strategies and technologies to extend shelf-life, pre-harvest factor management can be an additional method to limit quality deterioration during basil storage (Figure 1). The intrinsic genetic variability of the Ocimum genus can be exploited to obtain, through genetic breeding programs, basil cultivars that are less sensitive to cold, thus improving post-harvest performance. Additionally, reducing irrigation volumes and integrating non-essential nutrients such as selenium and silicon can be considered promising strategies to extend the shelf-life of this aromatic plant. Similarly, pre-harvest application of chemicals of different kinds could significantly reduce low-temperature sensitivity by simplifying delicate logistics operations that often take place at temperatures far lower than those tolerated by basil. Future research work should continue to identify and validate different pre-harvest techniques (such as the influence of nutrient solution management in hydroponics and the application of biostimulants) that are helpful in reducing production losses that occur throughout the basil supply chain. In light of this, growing in vertical modules and/or in fully controlled environments would allow for a detailed study of how different pre-harvest factors affect the shelf-life of basil. Only with this information could protocols be identified that would allow the shelf-life of major leafy vegetables to be extended without negatively affecting fresh yield and sensory quality. Future research should focus on developing standardized pre-harvest protocols tailored to different basil genotypes and cultivation systems. Additionally, integrating sensor-based monitoring and AI-driven predictive models could offer new insights into optimizing pre-harvest conditions for maximum post-harvest resilience. A multidisciplinary approach combining agronomy, food technology, and post-harvest physiology will be essential to achieving these objectives.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, M.C.; writing—review and editing, M.C., P.C., M.L., and Y.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Horticulturae 11 00326 g001
Figure 1. Influence of different pre-harvest factors on basil shelf-life.
Figure 1. Influence of different pre-harvest factors on basil shelf-life.
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Table 1. Summary of the various species and cultivars of basil studied in relation to pre-harvest and storage treatments aimed at prolonging shelf-life and improving post-harvest quality. For each species or cultivar, the treatments applied and their effects on plant physiology, cold tolerance, and visual and aromatic qualities are highlighted.
Table 1. Summary of the various species and cultivars of basil studied in relation to pre-harvest and storage treatments aimed at prolonging shelf-life and improving post-harvest quality. For each species or cultivar, the treatments applied and their effects on plant physiology, cold tolerance, and visual and aromatic qualities are highlighted.
Species/CultivarTreatmentEffectsReferences
Ocimum basilicum L.Sub-optimal nitrogen application (60 vs. 120 kg ha−1)Increased phenolic content, enhanced storability with economic benefits[35]
Genovese basilIntegration of silicon (75 ppm) in nutrient solutionReduced cold damage without affecting morphology[36]
Genovese basil (cv. Tigullio)Selenium biofortification (4 mg L−1 sodium selenate)Reduced ethylene production, increased antioxidant compounds (e.g., rosmarinic acid)[37]
Iranian green basilReduced irrigation (up to 25% of field capacity)Maintained visual appearance during storage[38]
Genovese basil (cv. Dolly)Controlled water stress (75% and 50% of field capacity)Depletion of aromatic profile in some cultivars, increased phenolic acids[39,40]
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Holy basil)Exogenous application of salicylic acid (5 mM)Delayed degradation of phenolic compounds, improved antioxidant capacity[41]
Lemon basil (Ocimum × citriodorum)Pre-harvest application of salicylic acid (5 mM)Reduced chilling injury, delayed electrolyte loss, and chlorophyll degradation[42]
Sweet basilLED lighting with red and green light (80:20 ratio)Improved shelf-life, enhanced tolerance to low temperatures (6 °C)[43]
Sweet basilFar-red light integration (730 nm)Increased cold tolerance during storage, enhanced photosynthetic and morphological traits[44]
(Ocimum basilicum L. var. thyrsiflora and Cinnamon; Ocimum × citriodorum)Saline stress (60 mM NaCl) in hydroponicsReduced leaf browning and increased phenolic acid content during storage[45]
Sweet basilIncreased light intensity (600 μmol m−2 s−1)Improved fresh biomass, dry matter content, and visual quality during cold storage[46]
Genovese basilPre-harvest application of melatonin (400 µM)Reduced cold damage, preserved visual quality and colorimetric characteristics[47]
Genovese basil (cv. Tigullio)Pre-harvest application of abscisic acid (1000–1500 mg L−1)Improved shelf-life, reduced chilling injury, and lower electrolyte loss at low temperatures[48]
Holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum L.)Exogenous application of oxalic acid (5 mM)Reduced chilling injury, delayed lipid degradation, and improved antioxidant capacity[41]
Lemon basil (Ocimum × citriodorum)Pre-harvest application of salicylic acid (5 mM)Delayed loss of electrolytes, reduced chilling injury, and preserved chlorophyll pigments[42]
Sweet basilRed and blue light supplementation in vertical farmingEnhanced production of secondary metabolites, improved post-harvest quality[49,50]
Sweet basilIntegration of UV-A light in light managementIncreased synthesis of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and pigments, linked to shelf-life improvement[50,51]
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Ciriello, M.; Carillo, P.; Lentini, M.; Rouphael, Y. Influence of Pre-Harvest Factors on the Storage of Fresh Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.): A Review. Horticulturae 2025, 11, 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030326

AMA Style

Ciriello M, Carillo P, Lentini M, Rouphael Y. Influence of Pre-Harvest Factors on the Storage of Fresh Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.): A Review. Horticulturae. 2025; 11(3):326. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030326

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ciriello, Michele, Petronia Carillo, Matteo Lentini, and Youssef Rouphael. 2025. "Influence of Pre-Harvest Factors on the Storage of Fresh Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.): A Review" Horticulturae 11, no. 3: 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030326

APA Style

Ciriello, M., Carillo, P., Lentini, M., & Rouphael, Y. (2025). Influence of Pre-Harvest Factors on the Storage of Fresh Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.): A Review. Horticulturae, 11(3), 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030326

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