Next Article in Journal
Mutual Augmentation of Spectral Sensing and Machine Learning for Non-Invasive Detection of Apple Fruit Damages
Previous Article in Journal
In Vitro Evaluation of the Effects of BAP Concentration and Pre-Cooling Treatments on Morphological, Physiological, and Biochemical Traits of Different Olive (Olea euorpea L.) Cultivars
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Horticulturae
Volume 8
Issue 12
10.3390/horticulturae8121110
horticulturae-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Growth Performance of Guava Trees after the Exogenous Application of Amino Acids Glutamic Acid, Arginine, and Glycine

by
Khalid F. Almutairi
1,*,
Abaidalah A. Saleh
2,
Muhammad Moaaz Ali
3,
Lidia Sas-Paszt
4,
Hesham S. Abada
5 and
Walid F. A. Mosa
6
1
Department of Plant Production, College of Food Science and Agriculture, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Horticulture, Faculty Agriculture, Omar Al-Mukhtar University, Al-Bayda 00218-84, Libya
3
College of Horticulture, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
4
The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Konstytucji 3 Maja 1/3, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland
5
Plant Production Department, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City 21934, Egypt
6
Plant Production Department (Horticulture-Pomology), Faculty of Agriculture, Saba Basha, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21531, Egypt
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2022, 8(12), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121110
Submission received: 16 October 2022 / Revised: 2 November 2022 / Accepted: 2 November 2022 / Published: 25 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Topic Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition for Sustainable Agriculture)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
A 2020–2021 study was performed on five-year-old guava trees to examine the influence of the foliar application of three amino acids, glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid, at a concentration of 500 or 1000 ppm. Additionally, two combinations of the three mentioned amino acids were also applied: 500 glycine + 500 arginine + 500 glutamic acid (combination 1) and 1000 glycine + 1000 arginine + 1000 glutamic acid (combination 2), and compared with a control (untreated trees). The results indicated that the application of the three amino acids, solely or in combination, was effective at increasing the shoot length, shoot diameter, and leaf chlorophyll. Additionally, the applied treatments also improved markedly the fruit set percentage, fruit yield, fruit firmness, fruit content of total soluble solids (TSS %), vitamin C (VC), and total sugars as well as the leaf mineral content (nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus) compared with untreated trees in 2020 and 2021. Moreover, the results indicated that the combinations were more effective than individual applications and that glycine had a greater influence than arginine or glutamic acid, particularly when it was applied at 1000 ppm.

1. Introduction

The guava tree (Psidium guajava L.), cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical areas around the world, is productive and profitable, and its fruit is tasty and has great nutritional value, especially due to the vitamin C content. Recently, global demand has increased because it can be eaten fresh but also processed into pulp, juice, wines, jams, and jellies [1]. Increasing the acreage of guava farming to obtain high production and quality requires increased usage of mineral fertilizers, which are costly and can have undesirable environmental effects. Therefore, more attention has recently been given to the dependency on amino acids in sustainable production [2]. Amino acids are organic molecules that contain N, C, H, and O2 [3]. It has been reported by some authors that the spraying of amino acids increased vegetative growth and productivity in numerous crops [4,5]. Moreover, they have a biostimulatory influence on plant growth and the absorption of nutrients [6,7,8] and on productivity in many plants [8]. Sadak et al. [9] mentioned that amino acids can increase a plant’s resistance to the undesirable effects of abiotic stresses, such as salinity, so they positively influence plant growth and yield. Furthermore, because amino acids are effective in small quantities, they are friendly to the environment, the soil, and human health [10]. Additionally, amino acids are a good source of nitrogen for plants, affecting productivity, inducing the development of shoots and roots, and, owing to their chelating properties, improving nutrient uptake, photosynthesis efficiency, and stomata movement [11,12,13]. Many authors have reported that providing plants with amino acids increased the fruit content of sugars, proteins, and elements [14,15] and raised the plant’s resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses [16,17]. Amino acids could boost the development of plant cells, as well as enzyme activation to decompose organic compounds, which liberates the elements, resulting in better growth averages [18,19,20]. Jerry and Al-Jarah [21] stated that amino acids have a pronounced role in maintaining the flowering process, transferring mineral elements to flowers.
Glutamic acid has an effect on plant development, yield, and fruit chemical characteristics [22,23]. Yaronskaya et al. [24] noted that glutamate plays a part in the synthesis of leaf chlorophyll. It has been reported by many authors that glutamate has a crucial impact on plant metabolism [25,26] and nitrogen assimilation pathways [27,28]. Nitrogen can be absorbed in the form of glutamate [29,30]. Furthermore, glutamate could be involved in the synthesis of proteins, glutamine, proline, arginine, glutamic acid, and chlorophyll [31,32]. Moreover, it can help in the transition of plants from the vegetative to the generative developing phase [33]. It has recently been demonstrated that glutamate positively affects the growth and development of roots [25,34], and it is also associated with the transportation of calcium [35] and abscisic acid in plants [36]. Haghighi and Teixeira Da Silva [37] reported that glutamic acid improved the protein and sugar content and yield.
Arginine has been identified as essential in nitrogen storage. Its weight is 174.2 g mol−1 and it is effective for transporting in plants because of the high nitrogen/carbon ratio [38]. Moreover, it is a source of nitrogen through the development of proteins and enzymes, involved in cell production and upregulating the production of carbohydrates and proteins, as well as stimulating physiological and biological processes and thus improving the plant’s performance [39]. Additionally, its application could increase nitrogen absorption by plants [40,41] and resistance to ecological stresses [42]. Furthermore, it is the fundamental unit in the formulation of proteins and some other bioactive components of higher plants [43]. Furthermore, it encourages plants to produce proteins and hormones such as auxins by increasing the production of necessary amino acids, in particular tryptophan, which encourages the elongation of plant cells [44]. Winter et al. [45] stated that, due to raising the nitrogen-carbon ratio in arginine, it is considered a good medium for the transporting of nitrogen. Spraying strawberries with 50 ppm arginine improved the fruit size and the number of achenes [46]. Moreover, Cheng et al. [47] mentioned that arginine contributes to the storage of nitrogen and its transfer inside plants because of its high nitrogen-carbon ratio.
Glycine is a small amino acid, hydrophilic and nonpolar, and, as a result of its chemical composition, it can react in both acidic and basic mediums. Moreover, it has a crucial effect on leaf chlorophyll and growth attributes, as well as raising the solubility of nutrients such as Mn, Zn, Cu, and Fe [48,49,50]. Glycine can cooperate with nutrients to raise chelates and increase nutrient uptake and translocation in plants. Its application is a sustainable way to ensure good production with respect to chemical fertilization [10]. Furthermore, the application of glycine markedly increased the total leaf chlorophyll and ascorbic acid, as well as leaf phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, zinc, and iron [51,52]. Mosa et al. [53] found that spraying “Flame seedless” grapes with glycine at 250, 500, and 750 mg/L improved the shoot length, thickness, productivity, berry weight, cluster weight, TSS, and anthocyanin content, as well as the total chlorophyll and minerals in the leaves, such as nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, compared with untreated vines.
Therefore, the current study was performed to study the role of amino acids as good pathways for increasing the vegetative performance, yield, and fruit quality of guava.

2. Materials and Methods

During the 2020 and 2021 seasons, the current study was performed on a private orchard at Abou El Matamir, Beheira governorate, Egypt to examine the influence of the foliar application of three amino acids: glycine (75 g mol−1), arginine (174.2 g mol−1), and glutamic acid (147.13 g mol−1). They were applied at 0.5 and 1 g/L, for a total of 2.5 and 5 g/L for each tree, four times: at the beginning of the vegetative growth (first week of April), the first week of May, the third week of May and mid-June. Guava trees (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Maamoura were five years old and were spaced at 4 x 4 m in clay soil under flood irrigation. The soil analysis is shown in Table 1 [54].
To perform this study, we selected 72 trees similar in growth, shape, and size, and each treatment was performed on eight trees/replicates. The trees were selected randomly and distributed in a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The following treatments were administered: control (untreated trees); glycine at 500 and 1000 ppm; arginine at 500 and 1000 ppm; glutamic acid at 500 and 1000 ppm; combination 1 (500 ppm glycine + 500 ppm arginine + 500 ppm glutamic acid); and combination 2 (1000 ppm glycine + 1000 arginine + 1000 glutamic acid).

2.1. Vegetative Growth Parameters

At the start of April (the start of vegetative growth ), on every tree (replicate), five shoots on each side were chosen and numbered, and at the end of the season, the shoot length and diameter were measured, while the average leaf area (cm2) was measured during the vegetative time (Equation (1)) [55]:
L A = 0.70   L × W − 1.06
where LA is the leaf area (cm2), L is the maximum leaf length (cm), and W is the maximum width (cm).
Total chlorophyll (μmol/m2) was measured in leaves as SPAD by a Minolta chlorophyll meter (SPAD 502; Konica Minolta, Osaka, Japan).

2.2. Fruit Set Percentage, Fruit Yield

The fruit set percentage was calculated via Equation (2):
Fruit   set   % = Number   of   fruitlets total   number   of   perfect   flowers × 100
In October 2020 and 2021, fruit yield was estimated in kg per tree and in ton per hectare.

2.3. Fruit Quality

Ten fruits from each tree (replicate), were picked in September (at the ripening stage) 2020 and 2021 and transferred directly to the lab for evaluation.

2.3.1. Fruit Physical Characteristics

Fruit weight (g), fruit size (cm3), fruit length, and diameter were assessed by a Digital Vernier Caliper (Suzhou Sunrix Precision Tools Co., Ltd., Suzhou, China), and we also measured the pulp weight (g), seed weight (g), and juice weight (g). Fruit firmness (1 Lb/inch2 = 1 psi = 6895 Pa) was assessed using a Magness and Taylor pressure tester (mod. FT 02 (0–2 lb, Alfonsine, Italy).

2.3.2. Fruit Chemical Characteristics

Total soluble solids (TSS %) were measured in fresh fruits by a hand refractometer (ATAGO Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Total and reducing sugars were measured by the Nelson arsenate–molybdate colorimetric method [56], and the difference between them is nonreducing sugars. The titratable acidity (%) [57], expressed as citric acid (g/100 mg) in fruit juice and then a TSS-TA ratio, was recorded. By titration with 2,6 dichloro phenol-indo-phenol [58], the Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content in the juice was evaluated and expressed in mg/100 mL.

2.4. Nutritional Status

At the end of the season, and after the fruit picking in November 2020 and 2021, 40 leaves [59] were selected from every tree/replicate to analyze their mineral content in terms of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Leaf samples were washed with water and then distilled water and dried at 70 °C until a steady weight. The dried leaves were ground and digested by H2SO4 and H2O2 into a clear solution, which was used to estimate nitrogen by the micro-Kjeldahl method [60], phosphorus by the vanadomolybdate method [61], and potassium using a flame photometer (SKZ International Co., Ltd., Jinan, China) [59].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to perform the statistical analysis for the obtained results [62]. The comparison of the means of the treatments was performed by a least significant difference (LSD) test at 0.05% (CoHort Software, Pacific Grove, CA, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Vegetative Growth Parameters

The application of glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid, individually or in a mix, greatly improved the vegetative growth attributes in terms of the shoot length, diameter, leaf surface area, and leaf total chlorophyll with respect to untreated trees in the 2020 and 2021 seasons (Table 2). The combination treatments had the most significant influence compared with the other treatments. Additionally, the application of 1000 ppm glycine, 1000 ppm arginine, and 1000 ppm glutamic acid, individually or in combination, was more effective than 500 ppm glycine, 500 pp arginine, and 500 ppm glutamic acid, solely or in combination, in 2020 and 2021.

3.2. Fruit Set and Yield

Spraying of glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid markedly improved the fruit set percentages and fruit productivity per tree or per hectare in the 2020 and 2021 seasons (Figure 1). It was noticed that the application of the three amino acids in combination was more efficient than individual application, and the highest percentages in terms of fruit set were obtained by the spraying of the combination treatments. In particular, the spraying of combination 2 enhanced the fruit yield in kg per tree and in tons per hectare in 2020 and 2021 over the other treatments. Furthermore, the same parameters were also improved with 1000 ppm glycine compared to arginine or glutamic acid.

3.3. Fruit Quality

3.3.1. Fruit Physical Quality Characteristics

Fruit weight, size, length, and diameter were greatly enhanced by the spraying of glycine, glutamic acid, and arginine, individually or in combinations over untreated trees (Table 3). Additionally, the highest increases in fruit weight (in kg per tree) in the 2020 and 2021 seasons were obtained by the application of combinations compared with untreated trees. Additionally, the fruit size, length, and diameter were statistically improved by the spraying of combinations over untreated trees. Moreover, the higher concentration (1000 ppm) of the three applied amino acids was better than the lower concentration (500 ppm) at improving fruit weight, size, length, and diameter in the 2020 and 2021 study seasons.
The results of Table 4 show that the pulp weight, juice content, and fruit firmness were obviously increased by the foliar addition of glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid amino acids in both study seasons. Moreover, more obvious results were noticed with the application of combinations compared to the other treatments applied during our study. In contrast, they reduced the seed weight compared with untreated trees. The results also showed that the influence of glycine, particularly at 1000 ppm, was higher than that of glutamic acid or arginine.

3.3.2. Fruit Chemical Quality Characteristics

The TSS %, VC, and TSS-acidity ratio were clearly affected by the application of amino acids in the two seasons compared to untreated trees (Table 5). The highest increases in TSS, Vitamin C, and TSS-acidity ratio were noticed with the application of combination treatments in 2020 and 2021. On the contrary, the combination treatments markedly decreased fruit acidity in 2020 and 2021 as compared to untreated trees. Moreover, TSS, Vitamin C, and the TSS-acidity ratio in fruits were higher with the spraying of 1000 ppm glycine rather than arginine or glutamic acid at the same dose.
Spraying of glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid amino acids enhanced the total, reduced, and nonreduced sugars compared to the untreated trees (Figure 2). The total sugar and reduced sugar content were increased by the foliar application of combination 2 in 2020 and 2021. The nonreduced sugar percentages were greatly improved by the spraying of arginine, glutamic acid, and glycine at 1000 ppm in 2020 and by combination 1 in 2021. Additionally, the high concentrations of glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid were more effective at increasing the fruit content from total sugars and reduced sugars than the low ones.

3.4. Nutritional Status

Spraying guava trees with glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids greatly improved the leaf mineral content of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus compared to untreated trees in the 2020 and 2021 seasons (Table 6). The highest increases were noticed after the spraying of combination 2, followed by combination 1, during 2020 and 2021. Moreover, the application of glycine at 1000 ppm was more effective at increasing the leaf mineral content from the same nutrients than arginine or glutamic acid.

4. Discussion

The results of the current study demonstrate that foliar spraying of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine has an obvious effect in terms of improving the vegetative growth attributes, fruit set, fruit yield, fruit quality, and nutritional status of guava under the conditions of the study. These results were explained previously by Lv et al. [63], who reported that spraying with 500 ppm glutamic acid increased the leaf chlorophyll content. Additionally, glutamate could induce chlorophyll synthesis [64,65], and consequently plant growth, with photosynthesis process products used in the production of new organs [66]. Moreover, spraying 50, 100, and 200 mg.L−1 glutamine remarkably enhanced the plant growth attributes, yield, and quality [27]. The foliar application of glutamic acid markedly improved the photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance [67]. Additionally, the application of glutamic acid raised the yield, bunch weight, fruit height, thickness, and volume, as well as the TSS content, of dates [68]. Glutamic acid has a beneficial effect on plants’ productivity and quality [69,70,71]. As glutamic acid is involved in the synthesis of proline, it is one of the most necessary amino acids for plants [72]. Moreover, it has a pronounced influence on the photosynthetic rate [73,74]. Yang et al. [75] reported that glutamate could ameliorate plant development by increasing the resistance of plants to undesirable environments. Furthermore, Noroozlo et al. [8] reported that the foliar application of glutamine at 250, 500, and 1000 mg/L on lettuce significantly increased the total leaf chlorophyll content, leaf Fe content, leaf vitamin C, plant height, root dry weight, N, K, Ca, Mg, and Zn, yield, and vitamin C. Our results are in line with the findings of Abou-Zaid and Eissa [76], who reported that spraying grapevines with glutamic acid at 1000 mg/L greatly improved the total chlorophyll, leaf area, fruit yield, and vine content of N, P, and K. Glutamic acid improved the protein and sugar content, and yield, in the Hongyangl tomato cultivar [37].
Arginine is largely used for enhancing the resistance of plants to stress by encouraging the synthesis of polyamine [77]. It can affect the seed germination rate and phloem and xylem transport [23], and is necessary for root development and elongation [78]. Moreover, it is vital for nitrogen metabolism, in particular urea production and ammonia transformation in plants [45]. Petridis et al. [79] reported that arginine-induced photosynthesis increased the carbohydrate content, SS%, and sugars; therefore, it might be responsible for improving fruit yield and quality. Furthermore, the application of arginine increases fruit quality [80,81] and supplies plants with nitrogen in the form of organic nitrogen, which influences the chloroplast structure and chlorophyll synthesis, and consequently, the photosynthesis process in plants [28,40]. In the same way, it has been found that the exogenous application of arginine at 50 and 100 ppm on pistachios, one week before full bloom and five weeks after full bloom, greatly increased the growth and physiological parameters of shoots. Additionally, it had a positive influence on the fruit and inflorescence bud abscission, and on the number of nuts [82]. Many authors reported that VC and total sugar were remarkably raised by the spraying of arginine [81,83]. Moreover, the foliar spraying of arginine led to a remarkable increase in VC, nutrients, total sugar, TA, and TSS % [84,85]. Additionally, our results are consistent with those of Pakkish and Mohammadrezakhani [86], who found that spraying mango trees with 35 and 70 ppm arginine increased the fruit weight, anthocyanin, carotenoids, phenols, and TSS, with 70 ppm having more significant effects. Yagi and Al-Abdulkareem [87] also noticed that arginine increased the synthesis of chlorophyll and thus improved photosynthesis. Treating guava and pomegranates with arginine minimized weight loss by protecting the integrity of the cell membrane [80,88]. Furthermore, arginine increased the fruit weight, anthocyanin, and TSS in strawberries [46], and reduced postharvest decay when sprayed on pistachios [82], strawberries [81], and pomegranates [80].
Our results were confirmed by many authors who found that spraying glycine increased leaf protein by raising the availability, uptake, translocation, and distribution of the nutrients from the soil to inside the plants [7,89,90], and consequently increased the leaf mineral nutrients [91]. Moreover, it increased the leaf water content and photosynthesis [90,92]. Additionally, glycine is a reduced form of nitrogen, which could be assimilated in the leaves to hasten the biosynthesis of protein [90,93,94,95], and has a pronounced influence on plant yield and quality [11]. It has been observed by Forsum et al. [96] that the spraying of glycine increased productivity in Arabidopsis plants. Furthermore, glycine plays a vital role in improving chlorophyll content and growth attributes and also in terms of the increased availability of zinc, manganese, copper, and iron [97,98], and is a signal-transducing molecule that can increase the availability and uptake of nutrients by plants [29]. Moreover, glycine ameliorated the photosynthetic process by increasing the usage efficiency of nitrogen [90]; its effect is similar to that of hormones [99], and sometimes it is considered a plant growth regulator [100]. Souri and Hatamian [10] found that the application of glycine is helpful for safe production and improving the leaf mineral composition of N, K, Mg, and Zn with respect to untreated plants. Additionally, the application of glycine at concentrations of 5 and 10 mg/L−1 increased plant growth [5]. In the same vein, Souri et al. [101] stated that the foliar addition of glycine to sweet basil greatly improved the plant height, leaf chlorophyll content, shoot and root fresh weights, and VC as well as the N, Ca, K, P, Fe, and Zn content in the leaves compared with unfertilized plants. Our results are also consistent with the findings of Mosa et al. [102], who found that treating apples with 25, 50, and 100 ppm glycine markedly increased the shoot length and diameter, leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll compared to untreated trees. Furthermore, the authors added that the same treatments also enhanced the fruit set, productivity, and fruit physical and chemical quality, as well as the N, P, K, Ca, Fe, Zn, Mn, and B mineral content, whereas it lowered fruit drop with respect to untreated trees.

5. Conclusions

The results of the current study demonstrate that the application of glycine, arginine, and glutamic acid improved guava’s vegetative growth performance, fruit set, yield, and quality, as well as the leaf mineral composition from NPK, compared with untreated trees in 2020 and 2021. Moreover, the application of a 1000 glycine + 1000 arginine + 1000 glutamic acid combination and also a 500 glycine + 500 arginine + 500 glutamic acid combination was more efficient than the usage of glycine, arginine, or glutamic acid alone in the two seasons. Additionally, the concentration of 1000 ppm of glycine, arginine, or glutamic acid was more effective than 500 ppm in the two seasons. Combination 2 (1000 glycine + 1000 arginine + 1000 glutamic acid) had more significant effects than 500 glycine + 500 arginine + 500 glutamic acid in terms of fruit yield in kg and in tons per hectare in the first season, as well as on fruit weight, size, length, diameter, and firmness in the two seasons.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.F.A.M., H.S.A. and A.A.S.; methodology, W.F.A.M., H.S.A. and A.A.S.; software, W.F.A.M., A.A.S., K.F.A. and M.M.A.; validation, L.S.-P. and M.M.A.; formal analysis, W.F.A.M., M.M.A., K.F.A. and A.A.S.; investigation, W.F.A.M. and H.S.A.; resources, W.F.A.M., A.A.S., K.F.A. and L.S.-P.; data curation, W.F.A.M., M.M.A. and H.S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, W.F.A.M., K.F.A., M.M.A. and L.S.-P.; writing—review and editing, W.F.A.M., K.F.A., L.S.-P. and M.M.A.; supervision, K.F.A. and L.S.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

All the data are in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors confirm that there is no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Omayio, D.G.; Abong, G.O.; Okoth, M.W.; Gachuiri, C.K.; Mwang’ombe, A.W. Current status of guava (Psidium guajava L.) production, utilization, processing and preservation in Kenya: A review. Curr. Agric. Res. J. 2019, 7, 318–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Esitken, A.; Ercisli, S.; Karlidag, H.; Sahin, F. Potential use of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in organic apricot production. In Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference: Environmentally Friendly Fruit Growing, Polli, Estonia, 7–9 September 2005; pp. 90–97. [Google Scholar]
  3. Buchanan, B.B.; Gruissem, W.; Jones, R.L. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  4. Mohammadi, P.; Khoshgoftarmanesh, A.H. The effectiveness of synthetic zinc (Zn)-amino chelates in supplying Zn and alleviating salt-induced damages on hydroponically grown lettuce. Sci. Hortic. 2014, 172, 117–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Mohammadipour, N.; Souri, M.K. Beneficial effects of glycine on growth and leaf nutrient concentrations of coriander (Coriandrum sativum) plants. J. Plant Nutr. 2019, 42, 1637–1644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Zhou, Z.; Zhou, J.; Li, R.; Wang, H.; Wang, J.; Soil. Effect of exogenous amino acids on Cu uptake and translocation in maize seedlings. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2007, 292, 105–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Garcia, A.; Madrid, R.; Gimeno, V.; Rodriguez-Ortega, W.; Nicolas, N.; Garcia-Sanchez, F. The effects of amino acids fertilization incorporated to the nutrient solution on mineral composition and growth in tomato seedlings. Span. J. Agric. Res. 2011, 9, 852–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Noroozlo, Y.A.; Souri, M.K.; Delshad, M. Stimulation effects of foliar applied glycine and glutamine amino acids on lettuce growth. Open Agric. 2019, 4, 164–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Sh Sadak, M.; Abdelhamid, M.T.; Schmidhalter, U. Effect of foliar application of aminoacids on plant yield and some physiological parameters in bean plants irrigated with seawater. Acta Biológica Colomb. 2015, 20, 141–152. [Google Scholar]
  10. Souri, M.K.; Hatamian, M. Aminochelates in plant nutrition: A review. J. Plant Nut. 2019, 42, 67–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Galili, G.; Amir, R. Fortifying plants with the essential amino acids lysine and methionine to improve nutritional quality. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2013, 11, 211–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Cerdan, M.; Sanchez-Sanchez, A.; Jordan, J.D.; Juarez, M.; Sanchez-Andreu, J. Effect of commercial amino acids on iron nutrition of tomato plants grown under lime--induced iron deficiency. J. Plant Nut. Soil Sci. 2013, 176, 859–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. D’Mello, J. Delivering innovative solutions and paradigms for a changing environment. In Amino Acids in Higher Plants; CAB International: Wallingford, UK, 2015; pp. 538–583. [Google Scholar]
  14. García García, J.; García García, B. Econometric model of viability/profitability of octopus (Octopus vulgaris) ongrowing in sea cages. Aquac. Int. 2011, 19, 1177–1191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Zhou, X.-B.; Chen, C.; Li, Z.-C.; Zou, X.-Y. Using Chou’s amphiphilic pseudo-amino acid composition and support vector machine for prediction of enzyme subfamily classes. J. Theor. Biol. 2007, 248, 546–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Kauffman, G.L.; Kneivel, D.P.; Watschke, T.L. Effects of a biostimulant on the heat tolerance associated with photosynthetic capacity, membrane thermostability, and polyphenol production of perennial ryegrass. Crop Sci. 2007, 47, 261–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Parađiković, N.; Vinković, T.; Vinković Vrček, I.; Žuntar, I.; Bojić, M.; Medić-Šarić, M. Effect of natural biostimulants on yield and nutritional quality: An example of sweet yellow pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2011, 91, 2146–2152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Claussen, W. Proline as a measure of stress in tomato plants. Plant Sci. 2005, 168, 241–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Nur, D.; Selcuk, G.; Yuksel, T. Effect of organic manure application and solariziation of soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities under greenhouse conditions. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 2006, 23, 305–320. [Google Scholar]
  20. El–Bassiouny, H.M.S.; Mostafa, H.A.; El–Khawas, S.A.; Hassanein, R.A.; Khalil, S.I.; Abd El–Monem, A.A. Physiological responses of wheat plant to foliar treatments with arginine or putrescine. Austr. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2008, 2, 1390–1403. [Google Scholar]
  21. Jerry, A.N.; AL-Jarah, T.M. Effect of foliar application of two amino acids” arginine and cysteine” and potassium nitrate on the growth and yield of the tomato plants grown in plastic houses. Kufa J. Agric. Sci. 2015, 7, 16–35. [Google Scholar]
  22. Liepman, A.H.; Olsen, L.J. Genomic analysis of aminotransferases in Arabidopsis thaliana. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2004, 23, 73–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Forde, B.; Lea, P. Glutamate in plants: Metabolism, regulation, and signalling. J. Exp. Bot. 2007, 58, 2339–2358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Yaronskaya, E.; Vershilovskaya, I.; Poers, Y.; Alawady, A.E.; Averina, N.; Grimm, B. Cytokinin effects on tetrapyrrole biosynthesis and photosynthetic activity in barley seedlings. Planta 2006, 224, 700–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Walch-Liu, P.; Liu, L.-H.; Remans, T.; Tester, M.; Forde, B.G. Evidence that L-glutamate can act as an exogenous signal to modulate root growth and branching in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell Physiol. 2006, 47, 1045–1057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  26. Walch-Liu, P.; Forde, B.G. L-Glutamate as a novel modifier of root growth and branching what’s the sensor? Plant Signal Behav. 2017, 2, 284–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. Amin, A.A.; Gharib, F.A.; El-Awadi, M.; Rashad, E.-S.M. Physiological response of onion plants to foliar application of putrescine and glutamine. Sci. Hortic. 2011, 129, 353–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Marschner, P. Marschner’s Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd ed.; Academic Press: London, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  29. Teixeira, W.F.; Fagan, E.B.; Soares, L.H.; Umburanas, R.C.; Reichardt, K.; Neto, D.D. Foliar and seed application of amino acids affects the antioxidant metabolism of the soybean crop. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Taiz, L.; Zeiger, E.; Taiz, L.; Zeiger, E. Plant Physiology, 5th ed.; Sinauer Associates Inc.: Sunderland, MA, USA, 2010; ISBN 978-0-87893-866-7. [Google Scholar]
  31. Brosnan, J.; Brosnan, M.E. Glutamate: A truly functional amino acid. Amino Acids 2013, 45, 413–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Reiner, A.; Levitz, J. Glutamatergic signaling in the central nervous system: Ionotropic and metabotropic receptors in concert. Neuron 2018, 98, 1080–1098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  33. Gupta, R.; Chakrabarty, S. Gibberellic acid in plant: Still a mystery unresolved. Plant Signal. Behav. 2013, 8, e25504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Walch-Liu, P.; Forde, B.G. Nitrate signalling mediated by the NRT1. 1 nitrate transporter antagonises L-glutamate-induced changes in root architecture. Plant J. 2008, 54, 820–828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Dennison, K.L.; Spalding, E.P. Glutamate-gated calcium fluxes in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2000, 124, 1511–1514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Khan, M.A.; Gul, B.; Weber, D.J. Action of plant growth regulators and salinity on seed germination of Ceratoides lanata. Can. J. Bot. 2004, 82, 37–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Haghighi, M.; Teixeira Da Silva, J.A. Amendment of hydroponic nutrient solution with humic acid and glutamic acid in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) culture. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2013, 59, 642–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Cheng, D.; Yadav, N.; King, R.W.; Swanson, M.S.; Weinstein, E.J.; Bedford, M.T. Small molecule regulators of protein arginine methyltransferases. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 23892–23899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Liu, J.-H.; Nada, K.; Honda, C.; Kitashiba, H.; Wen, X.-P.; Pang, X.-M.; Moriguchi, T. Polyamine biosynthesis of apple callus under salt stress: Importance of the arginine decarboxylase pathway in stress response. J. Exp. Bot. 2006, 57, 2589–2599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Näsholm, T.; Kielland, K.; Ganeteg, U. Uptake of organic nitrogen by plants. New Phytol. 2009, 182, 31–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Öhlund, J.; Näsholm, T. Growth of conifer seedlings on organic and inorganic nitrogen sources. Tree Physiol. 2001, 21, 1319–1326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Chen, X.; Yao, P.; Chu, X.; Hao, L.; Guo, X.; Xu, B. Isolation of arginine kinase from Apis cerana cerana and its possible involvement in response to adverse stress. Cell Stress Chaperones 2015, 20, 169–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Hussain, S.S.; Ali, M.; Ahmad, M.; Siddique, K.H. Polyamines: Natural and engineered abiotic and biotic stress tolerance in plants. Biotechnol. Adv. 2011, 29, 300–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Won, Y.-W.; Kim, K.-M.; An, S.S.; Lee, M.; Ha, Y.; Kim, Y.-H. Suicide gene therapy using reducible poly (oligo-D-arginine) for the treatment of spinal cord tumors. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 9766–9775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Winter, G.; Todd, C.D.; Trovato, M.; Forlani, G.; Funck, D. Physiological implications of arginine metabolism in plants. Front. Plant Sci. 2015, 6, 534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Mohseni, F.; Pakkish, Z.; Panahi, B. Arginine impact on yield and fruit qualitative characteristics of strawberry. Agric. Conspec. Sci. 2017, 82, 19–26. [Google Scholar]
  47. Cheng, L.; Ma, F.; Ranwala, D. Nitrogen storage and its interaction with carbohydrates of young apple trees in response to nitrogen supply. Tree Physiol. 2004, 24, 91–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  48. Sekhon, B.S. Chelates for micronutrients nutrition among crops. Resonance 2003, 8, 46–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Liu, J.; Wisniewski, M.; Droby, S.; Vero, S.; Tian, S.; Hershkovitz, V. Glycine betaine improves oxidative stress tolerance and biocontrol efficacy of the antagonistic yeast Cystofilobasidium infirmominiatum. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2011, 146, 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Shan, T.; Jin, P.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, Y.; Wang, X.; Zheng, Y. Exogenous glycine betaine treatment enhances chilling tolerance of peach fruit during cold storage. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2016, 114, 104–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Jiang, J.; Fan, X.; Zhang, Y.; Tang, X.; Li, X.; Liu, C.; Zhang, Z. Construction of a high-density genetic map and mapping of firmness in grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) based on whole-genome resequencing. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Lo’ay, A.; Doaa, M. The potential of vine rootstocks impacts on ‘Flame Seedless’ bunches behavior under cold storage and antioxidant enzyme activity performance. Sci. Hortic. 2020, 260, 108844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Mosa, W.F.; Salem, M.Z.; Al-Huqail, A.A.; Ali, H.M. Application of glycine, folic Acid, and moringa extract as bio-stimulants for enhancing the production of’Flame Seedless’ grape cultivar. Bioresources 2021, 16, 3391–3410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Sparks, D.L.; Page, A.L.; Helmke, P.A.; Loeppert, R.H.; Sparks, D.L.; Page, A.L.; Helmke, P.A.; Loeppert, R.H. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 3: Chemical Methods; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  55. Demirsoy, H.J.F. Leaf area estimation in some species of fruit tree by using models as a non-destructive method. Fruits 2009, 64, 45–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  56. Nielsen, S.S. Phenol-sulfuric acid method for total carbohydrates. In Food Analysis Laboratory Manual; Nielsen, S.S., Ed.; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2010; pp. 47–53. [Google Scholar]
  57. Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC). Official Methods of Analysis, 18th ed.; AOAC International: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  58. Nielsen, S.S. Vitamin C determination by indophenol method. In Food Analysis Laboratory Manual; Nielsen, S.S., Ed.; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 143–146. [Google Scholar]
  59. Arrobas, M.; Afonso, S.; Rodrigues, M.Â. Diagnosing the nutritional condition of chestnut groves by soil and leaf analyses. Sci. Hortic. 2018, 228, 113–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Wang, H.; Pampati, N.; McCormick, W.M.; Bhattacharyya, L. Protein nitrogen determination by Kjeldahl digestion and ion chromatography. J. Pharm. Sci. 2016, 105, 1851–1857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Weiwei, C.; Jinrong, L.; Fang, X.; Jing, L. Improvement to the determination of activated phosphorus in water and wastewater by yellow vanadomolybdate method. Ind. Water Treat. 2017, 37, 95–97. [Google Scholar]
  62. Ott, R.L.; Longnecker, M.T.; Ott, R.L.; Longnecker, M.T. An Introduction to Statistical Methods and Data Analysis; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  63. Lv, D.; Yu, C.; Yang, L.; Qin, S.; Ma, H.; Du, G.; Liu, G.; Khanizadeh, S. Effects of foliar-applied L-glutamic acid on the diurnal variations of leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters in hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida Bge.). Eur. J. Hortic. Sci. 2009, 74, 204. [Google Scholar]
  64. Suharja, S.; Sutarno, S. Biomass, chlorophyll and nitrogen content of leaves of two chili pepper varieties (Capsicum annum) in different fertilization treatments. Nus. Biosci 2009, 1, 9–16. [Google Scholar]
  65. Tsang, E.W.; Yang, J.; Chang, Q.; Nowak, G.; Kolenovsky, A.; McGregor, D.I.; Keller, W.A. Chlorophyll reduction in the seed of Brassica napus with a glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase antisense gene. Plant Mol. Biol. 2003, 51, 191–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Septiyana, E.; Setiari, N.; Darmanti, S. Glutamic acid application for enhancement of growth and productivity of okra plant (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench). Biogenesis J. Ilm. Biol. 2019, 7, 124–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Lee, H.J.; Kim, J.S.; Lee, S.G.; Kim, S.K.; Mun, B.; Choi, C.S. Glutamic acid foliar application enhances antioxidant enzyme activities in kimchi cabbages leaves treated with low air temperature. Hortic. Sci. Technol. 2017, 700–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  68. El-Shiekh, A.; Umaharan, P. Effect of gibberellic acid, glutamic acid and pollen grains extract on yield, quality and marketability of ’khalas’date palm fruits. Acta Hortic. 2014, 1047, 93–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Price, M.B.; Jelesko, J.; Okumoto, S. Glutamate receptor homologs in plants: Functions and evolutionary origins. Front. Plant Sci. 2012, 3, 235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  70. Forde, B.G.; Roberts, M.R. Glutamate receptor-like channels in plants: A role as amino acid sensors in plant defence? F1000prime Rep. 2014, 6, 37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Weiland, M.; Mancuso, S.; Baluska, F. Signalling via glutamate and GLRs in Arabidopsis thaliana. Funct. Plant Biol. 2015, 43, 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  72. Okumoto, S.; Funck, D.; Trovato, M.; Forlani, G. Amino acids of the glutamate family: Functions beyond primary metabolism. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  73. Fabbrin, E.d.S.; Mógor, Á.; Margoti, G.; Fowler, J.; Bettoni, M. Purple chicory’Palla Rossa’seedlings growth according to the foliar application of L-glutamic acid. Sci. Agrar. 2013, 14, 91–94. [Google Scholar]
  74. Röder, C.; Mógor, Á.F.; Szilagyi-Zecchin, V.J.; Gemin, L.G.; Mógor, G. Potato yield and metabolic changes by use of biofertilizer containing L-glutamic acid. Comun. Sci. 2018, 9, 211–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Yang, C.; Ko, B.; Hensley, C.T.; Jiang, L.; Wasti, A.T.; Kim, J.; Sudderth, J.; Calvaruso, M.A.; Lumata, L.; Mitsche, M. Glutamine oxidation maintains the TCA cycle and cell survival during impaired mitochondrial pyruvate transport. Mol. Cell 2014, 56, 414–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Abou-Zaid, E.A.A.; Eissa, M.A. Thompson seedless grapevines growth and quality as affected by glutamic acid, vitamin b, and algae. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nut. 2019, 19, 725–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Morris Jr, S.M. Arginine: Beyond protein. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 508S–512S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  78. Xia, J.; Yamaji, N.; Che, J.; Shen, R.F.; Ma, J.F. Normal root elongation requires arginine produced by argininosuccinate lyase in rice. Plant J. 2014, 78, 215–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Petridis, A.; van der Kaay, J.; Chrysanthou, E.; McCallum, S.; Graham, J.; Hancock, R.D. Photosynthetic limitation as a factor influencing yield in highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) grown in a northern European environment. J. Exp. Bot. 2018, 69, 3069–3080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Babalar, M.; Pirzad, F.; Sarcheshmeh, M.A.A.; Talaei, A.; Lessani, H. Arginine treatment attenuates chilling injury of pomegranate fruit during cold storage by enhancing antioxidant system activity. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2018, 137, 31–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Shu, P.; Min, D.; Ai, W.; Li, J.; Zhou, J.; Li, Z.; Zhang, X.; Shi, Z.; Sun, Y.; Jiang, Y. L-Arginine treatment attenuates postharvest decay and maintains quality of strawberry fruit by promoting nitric oxide synthase pathway. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2020, 168, 111253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Eslami, M.; Nasibi, F.; Manouchehri Kalantari, K.; Khezri, M.; Oloumi, H. Effect of exogenous application of l-arginine and sodium nitroprusside on fruit abscission and physiological disorders of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Scions. Int. J. Hortic. Sci.Tech. 2019, 6, 51–62. [Google Scholar]
  83. Li, X.; Wang, C.; Jiang, H.; Luo, C. A patent review of arginine methyltransferase inhibitors (2010–2018). Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 2019, 29, 97–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Wang, K.; Zhang, Z.; Tsai, H.-i.; Liu, Y.; Gao, J.; Wang, M.; Song, L.; Cao, X.; Xu, Z.; Chen, H. Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase 2 regulates ferroptotic cell death in cancer cells. Cell Death Differ. 2021, 28, 1222–1236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Mohseni, M.; Hamidoghli, A.; Bai, S.C. Organic and inorganic dietary zinc in beluga sturgeon (Huso huso): Effects on growth, hematology, tissue concertation and oxidative capacity. Aquac. Int. 2021, 539, 736672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Pakkish, Z.; Mohammadrezakhani, S. Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of the mango (Mangifera indica) fruit under arginine treatment. J. Plant Physiol. 2021, 11, 63–74. [Google Scholar]
  87. Yagi, M.; Abdulkareem, S. Effects of exogenous arginine and uric acid on Eruca sativa mill grown under saline conditions. J. Sci. Technol. 2006, 7, 1–11. [Google Scholar]
  88. Ali, M.H.; Khan, A.S.; Jaskani, M.J.; Anwar, R.; Ali, S.; Malik, A.U.; Hasan, M.U.; Rehman, R.N.U.; Ayyub, S. Pre-storage application of L-arginine mitigates chilling injury and maintains quality of Sandhuri guava fruit. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2022, 46, e16405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Abdul-Qados, A. Effect of arginine on growth, yield and chemical constituents of wheat grown under salinity condition. Acad. J. Plant Sci. 2009, 2, 267–278. [Google Scholar]
  90. Xiaochuang, C.; Chu, Z.; Lianfeng, Z.; Junhua, Z.; Hussain, S.; Lianghuan, W.; Qianyu, J. Glycine increases cold tolerance in rice via the regulation of N uptake, physiological characteristics, and photosynthesis. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2017, 112, 251–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Zargar Shooshtari, F.; Souri, M.K.; Hasandokht, M.R.; Jari, S.K. Glycine mitigates fertilizer requirements of agricultural crops: Case study with cucumber as a high fertilizer demanding crop. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. 2020, 7, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Yang, N.; Wang, C.-L.; He, W.-P.; Qu, Y.-Z.; Li, Y.-S. Photosynthetic characteristics and effects of exogenous glycine of Chorispora bungeana under drought stress. Photosynthetica 2016, 54, 459–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Ge, T.; Song, S.; Roberts, P.; Jones, D.; Huang, D.; Iwasaki, K. Amino acids as a nitrogen source for tomato seedlings: The use of dual-labeled (13C, 15N) glycine to test for direct uptake by tomato seedlings. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2009, 66, 357–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Ma, Q.; Zhang, Q.; Xu, Q.; Zhang, C.; Li, Y.; Fan, X.; Xie, X.; Chen, N. Systems metabolic engineering strategies for the production of amino acids. Synth. Syst. Biotechnol. 2017, 2, 87–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Ma, Q.; Cao, X.; Wu, L.; Mi, W.; Feng, Y. Light intensity affects the uptake and metabolism of glycine by pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.). Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 21200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  96. Forsum, O.; Svennerstam, H.; Ganeteg, U.; Näsholm, T. Capacities and constraints of amino acid utilization in Arabidopsis. New Phytologist 2008, 179, 1058–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Ghasemi, S.; Khoshgoftarmanesh, A.H.; Afyuni, M.; Hadadzadeh, H. The effectiveness of foliar applications of synthesized zinc-amino acid chelates in comparison with zinc sulfate to increase yield and grain nutritional quality of wheat. Eur. J. Agron. 2013, 45, 68–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. El-Sayed, A.F.M. Is dietary taurine supplementation beneficial for farmed fish and shrimp? A comprehensive review. Rev. Aquac. 2014, 6, 241–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Sooraki, F.Y.; Moghadamyar, M. Growth and quality of cucumber, tomato, and green bean under foliar and soil applications of an aminochelate fertilizer. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 2017, 58, 530–536. [Google Scholar]
  100. Kurepin, L.V.; Ivanov, A.G.; Zaman, M.; Pharis, R.P.; Hurry, V.; Hüner, N. Interaction of glycine betaine and plant hormones: Protection of the photosynthetic apparatus during abiotic stress. In Photosynthesis: Structures, Mechanisms, and Applications; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 185–202. [Google Scholar]
  101. Souri, M.K.; Naiji, M.; Kianmehr, M.H. Nitrogen release dynamics of a slow release urea pellet and its effect on growth, yield, and nutrient uptake of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). J. Plant Nutr. 2019, 42, 604–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Mosa, W.F.; Ali, H.M.; Abdelsalam, N.R. The utilization of tryptophan and glycine amino acids as safe alternatives to chemical fertilizers in apple orchards. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 1983–1991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Horticulturae 08 01110 g001 550
Figure 1. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on fruit set percentages and fruit yield in kg per tree and ton per hectare of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons. Treatments that have the same letters have no significant differences between them.
Figure 1. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on fruit set percentages and fruit yield in kg per tree and ton per hectare of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons. Treatments that have the same letters have no significant differences between them.
Horticulturae 08 01110 g001
Horticulturae 08 01110 g002 550
Figure 2. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on the fruit content from total, reduced and non-reduced sugars percentages of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons. Treatments with the same letter have no significant differences between them.
Figure 2. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on the fruit content from total, reduced and non-reduced sugars percentages of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons. Treatments with the same letter have no significant differences between them.
Horticulturae 08 01110 g002
Table
Table 1. Physicochemical analysis for the experimental orchard soil.
Table 1. Physicochemical analysis for the experimental orchard soil.
DepthpHEC dS/mO.M %Textural ClassSand %Silt % Clay %
0–607.41.941.72Clay9.1220.7870.1
Nutrients (mg/kg Soil) Soluble Anions(meq/L)Soluble Cations(meq/L)
NPKCaCo3 %HCO3−Cl−SO42−Ca2+Mg2+Na+K+
142217891.276.965.455.656.103.875.552.78
Table
Table 2. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on shoot thickness, shoot length, leaf area, and leaf total chlorophyll of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Table 2. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on shoot thickness, shoot length, leaf area, and leaf total chlorophyll of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Treatment Shoot Thickness
(cm)		Shoot Length
(cm)		Leaf Area
(cm2)		Total Chlorophyll
(SPAD)
20202021202020212020202120202021
Control02.24 f2.30 g26.06 d24.63 d34.77 f37.84 e41.11 e43.20 e
Glutamic acid500 ppm2.78 e2.77 f27.30 cd24.7 d42.3 e46.28 d45.05 d45.41 d
1000 ppm2.96 d3.41 d32.08 ab28.66 c46.21 bcd50.12 bc50.39 c51.73 c
Arginine500 ppm2.78 e3.16 e27.71 cd27.73 c42.66 de46.54 d46.32 d45.85 d
1000 ppm3.58 c3.61 c32.33 ab32.11 b46.82 bc51.96 b51.39 bc52.01 c
Glycine500 ppm2.79 e3.26 e30.24 bc28.00 c43.36 cde47.87 cd47.07 d46.23 d
1000 ppm3.73 b3.76 b33.71 ab32.33 b47.28 b56.70 a52.89 abc53.26 bc
Combination13.8 ab4.16 a34.03 ab36.17 a48.89 b57.25 a54.29 ab54.70 b
23.58 a4.16 a35.91 a37.27 a53.78 a58.21 a55.03 a57.03 a
LSD0.05 0.110.133.692.683.503.032.841.84
In the same column, treatments that have the same letters have no significant differences between them.
Table
Table 3. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on fruit weight, size, length and diameter of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Table 3. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on fruit weight, size, length and diameter of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
TreatmentFruit Weight
(g)		Fruit Size
(cm3)		Fruit Length
(cm)		Fruit Diameter
(cm)
20202021202020212020202120202021
Control0148.24 e152.81 g159.24 d165.28 f7.42 g7.65 e4.40 e4.43 f
Glutamic acid500 ppm155.43 d156.82 ef167.67 c170.28 de8.18 f8.20 d5.09 d5.10 e
1000 ppm162.58 c164.34 d173.25 b178.14 c8.62 cd8.65 bc5.54 b5.60 bc
Arginine500 ppm156.33 d155.04 f167.09 c168.51 ef8.41 e8.54 c5.22 c5.35 d
1000 ppm164.22 bc165.06 cd175.55 b178.53 c8.63 c8.68 bc5.55 b5.63 bc
Glycine500 ppm158.01 d158.37 e167.68 c172.83 d8.53 d8.57 bc5.50 b5.52 c
1000 ppm165.56 bc166.63 bc175.56 b179.43 bc8.69 c8.71 b5.58 b5.66 b
Combination1167.46 b168.37 b176.46 b182.51 b8.84 b8.95 a5.81 a6.18 a
2172.73 a176.17 a183.73 a189.30 a8.95 a8.97 a5.89 a6.21 a
LSD0.05 3.152.153.043.340.090.140.080.10
In the same column, treatments with the same letters have no significant differences between them.
Table
Table 4. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine and glycine amino acids on seed weight, pulp weight, fruit juice content, and fruit firmness of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Table 4. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine and glycine amino acids on seed weight, pulp weight, fruit juice content, and fruit firmness of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
TreatmentSeed Weight
(g)		Pulp Weight
(g)		Juice
(g)		Fruit Firmness
(Ib/inch2)
20202021202020212020202120202021
Control021.70 a 21.76 a 126.54 g131.06 g86.29 f86.65 e5.29 e5.30 f
Glutamic acid500 ppm20.08 b 21.10 ab 135.35 f135.72 ef88.62 ef89.55 de6.01 d5.96 e
1000 ppm18.79 bcd19.89 cd 143.79 d 144.45 d91.61 cde93.09 bc 6.33 c6.14 de
Arginine500 ppm19.74 bc 20.49 bc 136.60 ef134.55 f89.15 def90.62 cd5.94 d6.08 e
1000 ppm18.63 cd19.51 cde145.58 cd 145.55 cd92.30 bc 93.30 bc 6.47 c6.38 cd
Glycine500 ppm18.99 bc 20.10 bcd 139.02 e 138.26 e90.46 de90.81 cd5.99 d6.13 de
1000 ppm17.62 d19.02 def147.95 bc147.61 bc94.59 bcd 95.05 b 6.45 c6.60 c
Combination117.52 d18.51 ef149.94 b149.87 b94.85 ab 95.58 b 7.47 b 7.60 b
217.45 d18.22 f155.28 a157.95 a97.01 a 103.88 a 8.00 a 8.17a
LSD0.05 1.091.093.282.912.932.910.250.27
In the same column, treatments with the same letter have no significant differences between them.
Table
Table 5. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on the fruit content from TSS, total acidity, TSS-acidity ratio, and VC of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Table 5. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on the fruit content from TSS, total acidity, TSS-acidity ratio, and VC of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Treatment TSS
%		Total acidity
%		TSS-Acidity RatioVC
(mg/100 mL)
20202021202020212020202120202021
Control08.63 f9.27 e0.50 a0.53 a17.30 f17.49 f176.53 d176.58 d
Glutamic acid 500 ppm9.80 e10.30 d0.49 a0.50 a20.50 ef20.54 f178.22 cd181.33 cd
1000 ppm12.50 b12.53 b0.36 cd0.37 c35.07 c34.21 d187.20 b185.90 c
Arginine 500 ppm10.50 d11.60 c0.44 ab0.44 b24.01 de26.09 e183.77 bcd181.84 cd
1000 ppm12.57 b12.87 b0.35 cd0.33 cd36.35 c39.45 c191.80 b197.00 b
Glycine 500 ppm11.30 c11.19 c0.40 bc0.41 b28.57 d27.43 e184.88 bc183.80 c
1000 ppm12.63 b13.77 a0.34 cd0.32 de37.54 c43.49 b199.87 a197.33 b
Combination 113.63 a14.10 a0.32 d0.31 de42.76 b46.27 b200.09 a205.00 a
214.06 a14.20 a0.29 d0.28 e47.97 a51.58 a207.63 a208.11 a
LSD0.05 0.490.640.060.045.183.787.645.38
In the same column, treatments with the same letter have no significant differences between them.
Table
Table 6. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on the leaf content from N, P, and K of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
Table 6. The influence of glutamic acid, arginine, and glycine amino acids on the leaf content from N, P, and K of guava during the 2020 and 2021 seasons.
TreatmentN %P %K %
202020212020202120202021
Control02.06 e2.11 d0.32 d0.36 d2.32 f2.51 f
Glutamic acid 500 ppm2.12 e2.19 d0.34 cd0.36 d2.52 e2.72 e
1000 ppm2.72 c2.79 b0.44 ab0.45 abc3.53 c3.97 b
Arginine 500 ppm2.25 d2.29 c0.35 cd0.38 cd2.71 d2.82 de
1000 ppm2.68 c2.72 b0.40 bc0.45 abc3.48 c3.58 c
Glycine 500 ppm2.26 d2.34 c0.38 bcd0.40 bcd2.72 d3.00 d
1000 ppm2.86 b2.80 b0.45 ab0.47 ab3.88 b3.99 b
Combination 12.94 ab2.81 b0.45 ab0.49 a3.99 ab4.12 ab
23.04 a3.11 a0.49 a0.53 a4.14 a4.20 a
LSD0.05 0.120.100.060.070.170.19
In the same column, treatments with the same letter have no significant differences between them.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Almutairi, K.F.; Saleh, A.A.; Ali, M.M.; Sas-Paszt, L.; Abada, H.S.; Mosa, W.F.A. Growth Performance of Guava Trees after the Exogenous Application of Amino Acids Glutamic Acid, Arginine, and Glycine. Horticulturae 2022, 8, 1110. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121110

AMA Style

Almutairi KF, Saleh AA, Ali MM, Sas-Paszt L, Abada HS, Mosa WFA. Growth Performance of Guava Trees after the Exogenous Application of Amino Acids Glutamic Acid, Arginine, and Glycine. Horticulturae. 2022; 8(12):1110. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121110

Chicago/Turabian Style

Almutairi, Khalid F., Abaidalah A. Saleh, Muhammad Moaaz Ali, Lidia Sas-Paszt, Hesham S. Abada, and Walid F. A. Mosa. 2022. "Growth Performance of Guava Trees after the Exogenous Application of Amino Acids Glutamic Acid, Arginine, and Glycine" Horticulturae 8, no. 12: 1110. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121110

APA Style

Almutairi, K. F., Saleh, A. A., Ali, M. M., Sas-Paszt, L., Abada, H. S., & Mosa, W. F. A. (2022). Growth Performance of Guava Trees after the Exogenous Application of Amino Acids Glutamic Acid, Arginine, and Glycine. Horticulturae, 8(12), 1110. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121110

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop