Genealogy in Law as a Technology for Categorizing, Contesting and Deconstructing Monoracialism
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Race, Ethnicity, and Law as a Technology of Categorization
2.1. Race, Ethnicity, National Minorities: Group Recognition and the Law
2.2. Operationalizing Group Membership: Self-ID, Choice, and Beyond
2.2.1. Self-Identification
2.2.2. Objective Ethno-Racial Membership Criteria
3. Legal Contestation of Categorization: Litigating Passing and Fraud
3.1. Passing and Excluding “Passers”
3.2. Reverse Passing, Racial Fraud, Ethnocorruption, and Ethnic Cheating
3.3. Misrepresentation (or Mistake) as a Cause for Annulling Legal Obligations and Status
3.4. Contesting Proxies
4. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
1 | In 18 July 1950, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) issued a 54 page long document on “The Race Question”, arguing that race is not a biological phenomenon but rather largely socially constructed.” See also (Tajfel 1981). |
2 | https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=15235 (accessed on 16 December 2022). The document was also endorsed by the European Parliament’s 2005 resolution on the protection of minorities and anti-discrimination policies in an enlarged Europe. |
3 | For numerous European examples see (Venice Commission 2001). |
4 | Consider second wave feminism, the US Black Civil Rights movement, indigenous, or LGBT movements. |
5 | Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). |
6 | See for example, Article 1 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, the June 1990 Copenhagen Concluding Document on the Human Dimension of the CSCE, paras 32–33, the 2012 Ljubljana Guidelines on Integration of Diverse Societies by the Organization on Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE part II, para 6, the UN Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses, or Article 8(1) of the 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2007. |
7 | In the case the Court found the State to be in violation of the Convention by not providing the applicant to have his claim examined and objectively verified. |
8 | “In some cases, restoration of citizenship is available for very distant descendants of nationals who were nonvoluntarily deprived of their membership status. One of the most recent (and probably also the most peculiar) example is the Spanish government’s decision to open up fast-track naturalization for descendants of Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain in 1492.” Pogonyi (2022, p. 9). Portugal followed suit, here applicants must be able to show “Sephardic names”. See https://cilisboa.org/portuguese-nationality-concession/ (accessed on 16 December 2022). In Croatia, Bulgaria, and Hungary expedited naturalization is available upon documented ancestry. Ibid. |
9 | In the leading 1978 case Santa Clara Pueblo v Martinez case, the US Supreme Court confirmed “a tribe’s right to define its own membership for tribal purposes … as central to its existence as an independent political community”, 436 U.S. 49, 72 n.32 (1978). |
10 | For other, similar research on different groups see for example Antonio et al. (2019); Raghavan et al. (2014). |
11 | Most American strategic litigation (and landmark) cases involved litigants who were passing as White. Consider for example the light-skinned Plessy Homer (contesting segregated transport in Plessy v Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), the Japanese-American Fred Korematsu (resisting internment under World War II) obtaining rudimentary plastic surgery and claiming to be Clyde Sarah of Spanish–Hawaiian origin (Korematsu v United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944)), or NAACP’s Walter White, a “fair-skinned, blue-eyed, and blond-haired.. son of light-complexioned Negroes … Using his ability to pass as White, investigat(ing) lynchings for the NAACP during Jim Crow times.” Yang (2006, p. 373). |
12 | Beydoun and Wilson (2017, p. 328) showed how “Today, some people have flipped the “one-drop rule” to claim minority status to try to gain perceived advantages in scholarships, college admission and in the workplace.” Clarke observes how the American Bar Association pointed to the disparity between the number of self-identified Native American lawyers on the census (228) and the number reportedly graduated by ABA-accredited law schools over that same time period (approximately 2610). Clarke (2015b, p. 805). |
13 | See Chokal-Ingam (2015), reporting how a Southeast Asian medical school applicant represented himself as Black in order to obtain admission to medical school through a race-conscious affirmative action program. See also Harpalani (2013, p. 183). A related term is “transracialism”, which, prior to the Rachel Dolezal outing and the debate that it generated, was used to describe the lived experiences of children who were adopted into homes and raised by parents whose racial identification was phenotypically and culturally different from that of the child’s. Beydoun and Wilson (2017, pp. 348–49). |
14 | Re Ah Yup. (United States Circuit Court for the District of California 1 F. Cas. 223 (1878)). |
15 | The rationale was echoed in Baruah v Young (D.Md. 1982, 536 F.Supp. 356), and Defendants in Ortiz v Bank of America ((E.D.Cal. 1982) 547 F.Supp. 550). |
16 | His life was the basis of Lyudmila Ulitskaya’s 2006 novel, Daniel Stein, Interpreter. |
17 | For example, Nachova and Others v Bulgaria, No. 43577/98 and 43579/98, judgment of 6 July 2005, Balázs v Hungary, No. 15529/12, 20 October 2015, R.B. v Hungary, No. 64602/12, 12 April 2016. See also Kirs (2021), Balogh (2011), EU Agency for Fundamental Rights (2018) https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2018-unmasking-bias-motives-paper_en.pdf (accessed on 16 December 2022). |
18 | In addition to using Alice’s bare body as proof of race, the defense emphasized proxies, non-physical markers that he also viewed as telling of race, such as language, grammar, tone, and the use of colored doctors for illnesses. |
19 | See for example McBride v Lawstaf, Civil Action No. A.1:96-CV-0196C, 1996 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 16190, N.D. Ga. 19 Sept. 1996, Rogers v Am. Airlines, Inc., 527 F. Supp. 229, 232 (S.D.N.Y. 1981), Carswell v Peachford Hosp., No. C80-222A, 1981 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 14562, at 6 (N.D. Ga. 26 May 1981), McGlothin v Jackson Mun. Separate Sch. Dist., 829 F. Supp. 853, (Rich 2004), 1136-37, 1207-08). |
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Pap, A.L. Genealogy in Law as a Technology for Categorizing, Contesting and Deconstructing Monoracialism. Genealogy 2023, 7, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy7010001
Pap AL. Genealogy in Law as a Technology for Categorizing, Contesting and Deconstructing Monoracialism. Genealogy. 2023; 7(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy7010001
Chicago/Turabian StylePap, András L. 2023. "Genealogy in Law as a Technology for Categorizing, Contesting and Deconstructing Monoracialism" Genealogy 7, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy7010001