Detecting Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Neurodegenerative Disease Models and Patients
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Parkinson’s Disease
1.2. Huntington’s Disease
1.3. Alzheimer’s Disease
1.4. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
1.5. Is Oxidative Stress the Cause or a Consequence of Pathological Changes in Brain Cells?
2. Experimental Design
Materials
- 10× Citra-buffer (BioGenex #HK086-9K)
- 30% H2O2 (J.T.Baker #7047 or Merck #1.07209.1000)
- Normal swine serum (Dako #X0901)
- Antinitrotyrosine antibody (Alpha Diagnostic #NITT12-A) dilute 1:200
- Antineuroketals antibody (Chemicon #AB5611) dilute 1:2000
- Anti-8OHdG antibody (Chemicon #AB5830) dilute 1:1000
- Anti-TH antibody (Chemicon #AB1542) dilute 1:2000
- Biotinylated goat antirabbit IgG antibody (H+L) (Vector Laboratories #BA-1000) dilute 1:400
- Biotinylated horse antigoat IgG antibody (H+L) (Vector Laboratories #BA-9500) dilute 1:400
- Biotinylated rabbit antisheep IgG antibody (H+L) (Vector Laboratories #BA-9600) dilute 1:400
- Avidin-biotin-HRP (ABC) kit (Vector Laboratories # PK-4000)
- 3, 3′-diaminobenzidine (DAB) (Sigma #D4293-50SET)
- HistoGreen kit (Linaris #E109)
3. Procedure
3.1. Immunohistochemical Detection of Oxidative Stress Markers in Dopaminergic Neurons
3.1.1. Deparaffination and Rehydration. Time for Completion: Approx.60 min
- Place the slides in a slide rack and incubate for 10 min in xyleneCRITICAL STEP Work with xylene must be done in a fume hood.
- Repeat twice with fresh changes of xylene.
- Incubate twice for 5 min in absolute ethanol.
- Incubate twice for 5 min in 95% ethanol (v/v solution in H2O).
- Incubate twice for 5 min in 70% ethanol.
- Incubate 10 min in PBS.
3.1.2. Antigen Retrieval and Peroxidase Blocking. Time for Completion: 1 h 30 min
- Place the slides in heat-resistant container with sufficient 1× Citra-buffer to completely cover them and heat in a microwave oven for 3 min at 800 Watt.CRITICAL STEP Check that the solution is boiling.Alternatively, antigen retrieval can be performed in 0.1 M citrate buffer, pH 6.0: 40 mM sodium citrate dihydrate, 60 mM citric acid.
- Continue heating for an additional 8 min at 360 Watt.
- Let the container with the slides cool at room temperature for 20–30 min.
- Wash the slides three times for 5 min in PBS.
- Block endogenous peroxidase by incubating the slides 30 min in 1.5% H2O2 solution.
- Wash the slides three times for 5 min in PBS.
3.1.3. Immunolabelling with the First Antibody. Time for Completion: 16–17 h
- Remove liquid from the slides and carefully encircle the sections with a PAP pen (Merck #Z672548 or similar).CRITICAL STEP The PAP pen will create a hydrophobic barrier so that the antibody solution will stay on the section. It is critically important that the hydrophobic solution does not come into contact with the section, as it will essentially prevent any aqueous solution from reaching the section.
- Place each slide horizontally in a moist chamber and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of blocking solution.CRITICAL STEP It is critically important for the blocking solution at this step, and for the antibody solution in the following steps, to cover the entire section; therefore, the volume should be adjusted depending on the section size. Incubation in a moist chamber—e.g., a box lined with wet filter paper—prevents the evaporation of the solution, making it possible to reduce the solution volume.
- Incubate 30–60 min at room temperature.
- Carefully remove the blocking solution. Do not rinse the slides.
- Cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of one of the primary antibodies diluted in blocking solution: antinitrotyrosine diluted 1:200, antineuroketals diluted 1:2000 or anti-8-OHdG diluted 1:1000.CRITICAL STEP Optimal antibody dilution should be empirically tested for each antibody and, ideally, for each new batch, in a pilot experiment. Dilutions may range from 1:50 up to 1:5000 and even higher, depending on the antibody and antigen.
- Incubate overnight (approximately 15 h) at 4 °C in a moist chamber.
- On the next day, move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove liquid from slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of the proper secondary biotinylated antibody diluted 1:400 in PBS.CRITICAL STEP The secondary antibody depends on the animal species in which the primary antibody was raised. For example, antinitrotyrosine antibodies (raised in rabbit) use antirabbit secondary antibodies, while antineuroketals or anti-8-OHdG antibodies (both raised in goat) use antigoat secondary antibodies.
- Incubate for 30 min at room temperature; meanwhile prepare the avidin-biotin-HRP (ABC) mixture.
- Move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL ABC mixture.
- Incubate at room temperature for 30 min.
- Move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of DAB solution.
- Incubate at room temperature for 30 sec–10 min (depending on the antibody) until a brown color develops.CRITICAL STEP The exact incubation time depends on the antibody and quality of the sections. For all slides in one staining batch, the same incubation time should be maintained to enable comparisons to be made of the staining between different slides. The intensity of DAB staining, however, is not linearly dependent on the antigen concentration [73].
- Stop the reaction by immersing the slides in H2O.
- Move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
3.1.4. Immunolabelling with the Second antibody. Time for Completion: 19–20 h
- Block HRP from the first staining by incubating the slides for 30 min in 1.5% H2O2 solution.
- Wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with several drops of avidin solution (Vector Laboratories #SP-2001).CRITICAL STEP Incubation with avidin and, subsequently, with biotin is necessary to block the nonspecific binding of avidin-conjugated HRP to the first secondary antibody.
- Incubate for 15 min at room temperature.
- Wash for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with several drops of biotin solution (Vector Laboratories #SP-2001).CRITICAL STEP Incubation with avidin and, subsequently, with biotin is necessary to block the nonspecific binding of avidin-conjugated HRP to the first secondary antibody.
- Incubate for 15 min at room temperature.
- Wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of one of the second primary antibodies diluted in blocking solution: antityrosine hydroxylase diluted 1:2000
- Incubate overnight (approximately 15 h) at 4 °C in a moist chamber.
- On the next day, move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of proper secondary biotinylated antibodies diluted 1:400 in PBS.CRITICAL STEP The choice of secondary antibody depends on the animal species in which the primary antibodies were raised. For example, for antityrosine hydroxylase antibodies (raised in sheep), use antisheep secondary antibodies.
- Incubate for 30 min at room temperature; meanwhile prepare the avidin-biotin-HRP (ABC) mixture.
- Move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL ABC mixture.
- Incubate at room temperature for 30 min.
- Move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in PBS.
- Remove the liquid from the slides, place them horizontally and cover each brain section with approximately 100 µL of HistoGreen solution.
- Incubate at room temperature for 30 sec–10 min (depending on the antibody) until a green/blue color develops.CRITICAL STEP The exact incubation time depends on the antibody and quality of the sections. For all slides in one staining batch, the same incubation time should be maintained to enable comparisons to be made of the staining between different slides.
- Stop the reaction by immersing the slides in ddH2O
- Move the slides to a slide rack and wash three times for 10 min in ddH2O.
3.1.5. Dehydration and Mounting. Time for Completion: Approx. 15 h
- Incubate twice for 3 min in 70% ethanol.
- Incubate twice for 3 min in 95% ethanol.
- Incubate twice for 5 min in absolute ethanol.
- Incubate twice for 5 min in xylene.CRITICAL STEP Work with xylene must be done under a fume hood.
- Using a glass rod, put several drops of Eukitt mounting medium (Merck #03989 or similar) in each section.
- Cover the sections with coverslip to avoid the formation of bubbles.
- Keep overnight at room temperature under the fume hood to dry.
3.2. Evaluation of MDA Content in Tissue Lysates. Time for Completion Approximately 1 h
- Homogenize the tissue sample in 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.2) (10% w/v ratio).OPTIONAL STEP Cells can be fractionated before measurements by centrifugation if desired. Buffers and solutions other than Tris-HCl (pH 7.2) can be used to homogenize the tissue sample. In particular, Oakes et al. (2002) report using 1.15% KCl solution for this purpose [74]. Buffers containing tris-maleate (≤40 mM), imidazole (≤20 mM) or 4-morpholine propanesulfonic acid ≤ 20 mM) also do not interfere with the assay readout. However, avoid sucrose-containing buffers, as sucrose can interact with thiobarbituric acid [75].There is a concern regarding the continuous production of MDA during the process of sample handling. While it is generally not a big problem for preclinical measurements, where appropriate controls are easily available and results are usually interpreted within one experiment, it can be an issue with clinical samples. To minimize MDA production during sample handling, an antioxidant, e.g., butylated hydroxytoluene (35 µM), can be added to the tissue homogenization buffer [74]. To improve the solubilization of tissue components, sodium dodecyl sulfate can be added to the reaction mixture at concentrations of, e.g., 12.4 mM [74,75].
- Add trichloroacetic acid (7–10% of the final volume) and mix well. We successfully used the following ratio: 700 µL of homogenate and 500 µL of 15% trichloroacetic acid.
- Centrifuge at 10,000× g for 10 min to remove precipitated proteins.
- Collect the supernatant and mix it with 0.75% thiobarbituric acid (1:1), incubate in a water bath at 100 °C for 15–20 min, cool on ice for 5 min and centrifuge at 1000× g for 10 min to remove any insoluble inclusions.CRITICAL STEP Thiobarbituric acid is poorly soluble in water; its aqueous solution is unstable and should be prepared freshly before each test. Some manuals recommend dissolving thiobarbituric acid directly in 20% trichloroacetic acid to a 0.5% final concentration. According to these manuals, such a solution can be stored for about a month at room temperature without precipitation.
- Measure the absorbance of the resulting supernatant at 532 nm (A532), with 580 nm as the reference wavelength (used for baseline correction) using a suitable spectrophotometer with a cuvette with a width of 1 cm.OPTIONAL STEP It is also possible to measure the assay readout fluorometrically using the following settings: excitation at 515 nm, emission at 553 nm [74].
4. Expected Results
5. Reagents Setup
- Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) pH 7.4: 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 8 mM Na2PO4 and 1.5 mM KH2PO4 in H2O
- 1× Citra-buffer: dilute 1 part of 10× stock solution (BioGenex #HK086-9K, stored at 4 °C) with 9 parts of H2O; prepare fresh before use
- 1.5% H2O2 in PBS: dilute 12.5 mL 30% H2O2 (J.T.Baker #7047 or Merck #1.07209.1000) in 237.5 mL PBS
- Blocking solution: 5% (v/v) normal swine serum (Dako #X0901) in PBS
- Avidin-biotin-HRP (ABC) mixture (Vector Laboratories # PK-4000): to 1 mL PBS add 10 µL solution A, mix and add 10 µL solution B, mix, and let stand at room temperature for at least 20 min before use.
- 15% Tricholoacetic acid
- 0.75% Thiobarbituric acid (make fresh before each use): mix 0.75 g of thiobarbituric acid powder with 100 mL ddH2O and warm the solution until dissolved.
- 50 mM Tris HCl buffer with pH 7.2–7.4 (1 L): Disslove 6.2 g Tris in 900 mL ddH2O, adjust pH with HCl solution and afterwards, adjust volume to 1 L.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sidorova, Y.; Domanskyi, A. Detecting Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Neurodegenerative Disease Models and Patients. Methods Protoc. 2020, 3, 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps3040066
Sidorova Y, Domanskyi A. Detecting Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Neurodegenerative Disease Models and Patients. Methods and Protocols. 2020; 3(4):66. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps3040066
Chicago/Turabian StyleSidorova, Yulia, and Andrii Domanskyi. 2020. "Detecting Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Neurodegenerative Disease Models and Patients" Methods and Protocols 3, no. 4: 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps3040066