Bridging the Gap between Electronic Monitoring Policy and Practice: From the Perspective of Chinese Tuna Longliners

Abstract

Electronic monitoring systems (EMSs) have been widely used in global fishing vessels as an effective tool to obtain reliable information about catches and fishing operations in order to verify compliance with national and international regulations. Though EMS implementation in tuna vessels has not yet been made a mandatory requirement by tuna regional fisheries management organizations, many Chinese longliners have the system on board for traceability and safety purposes. Based on interviews with managers and skippers on Chinese tuna longliners, this paper firstly identifies the challenges in electronic monitoring management that have hindered fishermen’s confidence to implement EMS at a larger scale. Then this paper proposes a work plan to facilitate EMS implementation from the perspective of Chinese tuna longliners, in which the adoption of EM standards, specifications, and procedures, and identification of EM data fields are the top priorities. To fully address concerns raised by tuna longliners, a cloud computing platform for EMS data storage, transmission, and review could help to protect data safety and confidentiality. Artificial intelligence technology is recommended to increase cost-efficiency in data review procedures, in addition to compliance incentives and financial incentives from policy makers.

1. Introduction

Electronic monitoring systems (EMSs) have been widely used in global fishing vessels as an effective tool to obtain catch information, and for fishery authorities to verify compliance with measures and regulations without a human observer on board [1]. A set of EMSs usually consists of video cameras, Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, sensors, and computers with removable hard drives to record vessel locations and activities, which could be reviewed at a later stage [2]. With the help of satellite transmission, some EMSs provide real-time data on catch, discards, and fishing activities. EMSs serve as an effective alternative to human observers for providing independent fisheries data for the purposes of scientific research, compliance monitoring, and ecological and social sustainability assessment [3,4].

In tuna fisheries, EMS pilot trials and programs have been carried out across the three oceans, mainly to examine the reliability of EMS data in comparison to that collected by human observers, and to identify fields where EMS data are in need of improvement [3,5,6,7,8,9,10,11].

In the Indian Ocean, early in 2013, the use of an EMS was tested on a French tuna purse seine (PS) vessel during two fishing trips, to compare the data collected using the EMS and observers to examine the reliability of EMS data on commercial PS vessels [5]. However, Seychelles was the first nation in this region to execute an EMS pilot project. In 2016, cameras were placed in different parts of two Seychelles PS vessels, to allow for a complete and simultaneous monitoring of all steps in fishing operations. With port sampling, the Seychelles activity used EMS technology to estimate catch and size distribution per species and fishing set, which helped improve stock assessments and monitor ecosystem impacts of the PS fisheries [12]. Later, the EMS pilot was extended to longline and PS vessels on the high seas. And, currently, Seychelles is implementing a full-scale EMS program on all of its industrial vessels to address the lack of observations at sea for the longline fleet and to complement the scientific observer program on the PS fleet [13]. The Maldives initiated an EMS in 2019 on 14 vessels, working to address the challenges and gaps in the EMS program, such as training of video analysis staff, customization of the video analysis software, etc. [14,15].

In the Pacific Ocean, EMS trials have been ongoing since the 2010s in the Federal States of Micronesia (FSM), the Republic of Fiji, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Solomon Islands [16]. In 2014, a collaborative EMS project on tuna longliners was carried out in the Solomon Islands EEZ, with two freezer tuna longliners equipped with EMSs as well as two independent human observers assigned to each vessel to carry out the regular task of observing and recording the catch. This project aimed to investigate the capability of EMS in data collection, in comparison to that collected by observers on board [9,17]. Later, a large-scale trial of EMS on tuna longliners based in Palau, the FSM, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands was carried out to compare catch rates of market and bycatch species reported by EMS, logbook, and human observers [3], suggesting that EMS expansion could contribute to better management of both target and non-target species. EM programs in the Eastern Tuna and Billfish fisheries were used to compare the level of similarity between EMS and logbook data for commercial fisheries, bycatch, and protected species. It was found that data of target species had a high similarity, while the result of other retained bycatch species had a low similarity, and discarded species were reported in greater numbers by the logbook than the EMS, mainly because many of the discarded are released without being brought on board, to maximize the survivability [18].

In the Atlantic Ocean, a study was carried out in 2014 to examine the ability of an EMS to collect precise catch and bycatch data in the tuna PS fisheries. The EMS was found to be a valid tool for monitoring the number of sets, set type, and total tuna catch within the tropical tuna PS fishery; yet some future adjustments are still needed for the monitoring of the bycatch [19]. French and Italian tropical tuna PS fisheries implemented an EMS pilot project from 2014 to 2019 to compensate for insufficient spatial and temporal observer coverage, to use EMS as an alternative when embarking observers was not possible [10,20,21]. EMSs also contribute to knowledge of the spatial–temporal distribution of seabirds, as the system records the time and frequency of seabird interactions with longliners on a timely basis.

Tuna regional fisheries management organizations (t-RFMOs) require tuna vessels fishing in their convention areas to have a minimum of 5% observer coverage for longline vessels [22,23,24,25]. Yet placing observers on vessels sometimes turns out to be a challenge due to additional costs and limited space on board, in addition to the concerns over the working conditions and safety of human observers [26], especially with the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in the past three years. EMS trials encourage the discussion of EMSs within t-RFMOs with an increasing call to adopt EMSs on tuna vessels to bridge the data gap, especially on those with low observer coverage.

2. Methodology

This paper firstly reviews and examines documents and literature on the existing legal framework of EMSs, followed by interviews with fishery managers and skippers from Chinese fishing companies engaging in tuna longline fisheries to identify the opportunities and challenges of applying EMSs on board. A follow-up discussion was conducted regarding how to bridge the gap between existing policies and practices undertaken by tuna longliners. The objective of this paper is to provide some consideration and suggestions on the implementation of EMSs on a wider scale on board the tuna vessels for compliance purposes, from the perspective of EMS utilizers.

3. Regional and National Policies on Electronic Monitoring

The call for electronic monitoring is accompanied by increasingly specific requirements on data collection by both international laws and regional fishery regulations for fisheries management and scientific purposes. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) requires regular contribution and exchange of scientific information, catch and fishing effort statistics, and other data relevant to the conservation of fish stocks through international, regional, and subregional organizations, with participation by all concerned states (Article 61(5), Article 119 (2)), and urges states concerned to cooperate to promote such studies and research programs and encourage the exchange of information and data (Article 200). The Fish Stock Agreement also mandates states to collect and share complete and accurate data concerning fishing activities in a timely manner (Article 5(j)), and lines out the data reporting duties of flag states, i.e., recording and timely reporting of vessel position, catch of target and non-target species, fishing effort, and other relevant fisheries data in accordance with subregional, regional, and global standards for the collection of such data (Article 18). The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries emphasizes the reliability and accuracy of data collected for the assessment of fisheries status and ecosystems, and the need to report to relevant states and subregional, regional, and global fisheries organizations (Article 12.4).

Tuna RFMOs have incorporated data collection and reporting requirements in their conventions (WCPFC Article 5(i), IOTC Article XI, IATTC Article VII 1(b), ICCAT Article VII (f)), and require vessels fishing in their convention areas to report operational level data to the secretariats, accompanied by data confidentiality rules and procedures for the protection, access to, and dissemination of data submitted to the secretariats [27,28,29,30].

All four t-RFMOs are working on the development of an electronic monitoring framework, providing guidelines to ensure proper and accurate information is collected by EMS programs, and hosting workshops or establishing working groups on management considerations for EMS and technical standards, and data collection priorities.

By 2023, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) have already adopted the Electronic Monitoring Minimum Standards for tuna fisheries [31,32]. The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), in conjunction with the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), has been working on the implementation of an EMS for PS, longline, and carrier vessels operating in its convention area through specific projects, workshops, and meetings, to establish the framework for a regional EMS program [33], and is expected to develop a set of interim EMS standards for adoption in 2024 [34]. Meanwhile, the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), with six workshops on an EMS in 3 years, also agreed to adopt interim standards this year [35].

Trials in the past decade have proved that EMSs are a promising tool for data collection and reporting, which provides rich granularity to distinguish specific vessel behaviors and enable cross-verification of self-reported data, and confirm vessel compliance with regulations. Some countries have fully implemented EMS programs in their domestic fisheries, such as Australia and New Zealand, to improve traceability, vessel safety, and transparency of fishing operators. New Zealand adopted the Fisheries (Electronic Monitoring on Vessels) Regulations in 2017, which stipulates the installation and use of EMS in fisheries [36]. In 2023, the New Zealand Guidelines for the Release of Fisheries Information clearly indicate the conditions for and personnel who have access to different categories of EMS information [37]. The European Fisheries Control Agency has also developed technical guidelines and specifications for the implementation of remote electronic monitoring (REM) in EU fisheries, with minimum technical requirements and standards for REM systems stipulated to provide means to effectively control and enforce the EU’s landing obligation at sea and to potentially provide a source of verifiable data [38].

4. EMS Practice in Chinese Tuna Fishing Vessels

With the 14th Five-year Plan period (2021–2025), China actively promotes the mechanization, automation, and digitalization of distant-water fishing vessels, with considerable investments in the research, development, and application of technologies such as the internet of things (IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI) in the fishery sector. Work is also underway to adapt the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) specifically for use in the sector. Since the provision of services began, BDS has been widely used in fisheries to provide all-time, all-weather, and high-accuracy positioning, navigation, and timing services to fishermen [39]. Also, EMS implementation is encouraged by local fishery authorities as a way to ensure compliance. Though not stated explicitly, some provincial and municipal fisheries authorities encourage updates on equipment by providing financial aid for vessel modernization. For example, the government of Shenzhen, a coastal city in southeast China has issued the latest circular on support measures for fisheries development (Fishery Sector), which “encourages research, development, and application of modern fishery facilities, equipment, and information technology”, and provides conditional subsidies up to 50 percent of the total investment [40].

4.1. Reasons to Install EMS

Though to date t-RFMOs have not yet adopted any mandatory requirement for EMS installation on tuna vessels, many Chinese fishing companies have voluntarily deployed EMSs on board with the primary purpose of internal management, i.e., fish quality control, fishing operation record and review, and safety reasons. Currently, more than 100 tuna fishing vessels have been equipped with electronic monitoring systems, accounting for approximately 20 percent of all tuna fishing vessels in China [41]. Some large-scale companies are scheduled to have full coverage of EMSs on fishing vessels by 2024.

Meanwhile, some Pacific Island states are considering the full implementation of EMS programs for vessels fishing in their exclusive economic zones (EEZs) [21]. Countries like the FSM, Samoa, Fiji, and the Cook Islands, have been pushing forward to fully establish the capacity to monitor longline vessels fishing in their EEZs using electronic monitoring [42]. While RFMOs are drafting EMS standards and procedures through their working groups, some coastal states require EMSs as a condition for vessels applying for a fishing license in the EEZs of those coastal states [43].

EMSs also contribute to fish product trading. The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certificate could provide fisheries more access to global markets. MSC standards require certified fisheries to collect sufficient data and demonstrate that they have an independent observation of catches, which could be done through EMSs or an observer program [44]. Companies intending to expand their fish products in European or US markets, usually with higher prices than those sold in local or less valuable markets, tend to equip their vessels with EMSs, especially longline vessels which may not have the opportunity to deploy a human observer onboard.

4.2. Challenges in EMS Implementation

4.2.1. Difficulty in Collecting Some Data (Technical Issue)

With advancements in information technology and artificial intelligence, an EMS could provide high-resolution images, and detect most of the retained species. Yet it is also acknowledged that EMSs need improvement in some data fields, such as the detection of sex and size of some species of non-retained catch and the life status of the catch, depending on the way the catch has been brought on board. Recent studies have shown the deficiency of EMSs in some data fields (e.g., discards, biological information, hook type, and size) which could be complemented by other tools, such as port sampling, onboard inspection, etc., especially with increasingly advanced AI technology. Also, human observers could provide data on specific fields, such as biological sampling or tagging, if EMSs are used to supplement or complement observer monitoring [45].

In the practice of EM on Chinese longline vessels, some bycatch species are released at sea, since fishermen are told to release endangered and protected species promptly, as well as for personal safety concerns. It has been found that species such as sharks and dolphins are hard to identify via cameras when they have not been brought on board, especially during night time. In rainy days, some lenses have been covered by raindrops, hence making it more difficult to identify species.

4.2.2. Data Transmission and Reviewing (Data Confidentiality)

A question raised by fishermen in Chinese vessels concerns the access rights to stored data. Usually, data recorded by EMSs are stored on a hard disk during the fishing trip, and once returned are submitted to port states, i.e., countries providing designated ports for landing, transshipping, packaging, processing, refuelling or resupplying, etc. To crew members, it is ambiguous as to who the data really belong. Seemingly, the port state, coastal state, and flag state all have the right to get access to EMS data, but there is no international or regional stipulation on the rights to such data, which raises concerns over data confidentiality, i.e., who is responsible for keeping the data safe. One of the Chinese fishing companies has developed its own system, by its own IT staff, and established a platform for EMS data review, partially for fear of leaking information to competitors.

4.2.3. Cost Issue

The cost of running EMSs in fisheries consists of the primary installation costs, including purchasing of cameras, sensors, and data storage devices, as well as maintenance and periodic upgrading costs, and data review costs. In the case of tropical tuna purse seine fisheries, a minimum of four cameras is needed to capture the full view of the fish handling processes (including loading of the catch, pre-sorting of the catch, and transfer of the catch), according to the minimum EMS standards adopted by the IOTC. Depending on the product, a set of EMS equipment per vessel usually costs between USD 8000 to USD 14,000, plus extra maintenance and data transmission costs (personal communication). If the data were required to be stored for 9–18 months, there are also costs for extra digital storage devices. In case of real-time satellite transmission, there are additional charges for data flow. The costs of data review depend on the percentage of data sampling. For example, for a tuna longline vessel fishing in the Pacific Ocean, 30% of the fishing days would be reviewed with a daily cost of USD 50 per vessel. The total cost of the EMS per vessel in the first year is estimated to be over USD 40,000 (personal communication), which turns out to be a considerable financial burden for fishing companies.

Though studies show that EMS costs are less expensive than the cost of human observers in the long term [46,47], the upfront costs still hinder the scalability of EMS implementation, especially in small fishing companies.

5. Discussion

EM has been gradually recognized as an efficient and cost effective tool to complement human observers, especially in tuna longline vessels, where the observer coverage rate is usually between 5% and 10% as required by RFMOs. EMSs have the potential to increase transparency, which in turn improves fisheries management and compliance in fisheries with science and data gaps. Despite the promise of the program, the market for EMSs remains small, fragmented, and low-margin. Given the large number of vessels fishing across three oceans, there is a large monitoring deficit in need of EMSs to fill the gap [4]. EMSs entail more than installing cameras on a vessel. The concerns raised in data collection, transmission, and review, and cost issues, as in the case of Chinese longliners, should be addressed with the collaboration of RFMOs, coastal states, fishing states (states to which fishing vessels are flagged to), and port states. Further work to facilitate EMS implementation may include the following aspects.

5.1. Develop a Work Plan for the Implementation of EMS

Given the fact that t-RFMOs have either adopted or been on the way to adopting minimum EMS standards in tuna fisheries, the use of EMSs would become an effective complement for human observers in the coming future. Yet, full implementation of an EMS involves multiple stakeholders, i.e., RFMOs, flag states, coastal states, port states, the fishing industry, etc. It is necessary for RFMO decision-makers to draw a work plan for the coming years (Figure 1) and lay out priorities at different time slots and for different stakeholders.

The first and foremost step is to adopt standards, specifications, and procedures (SSPs) that would contribute to a more effective electronic monitoring program [48], e.g., standards for EMS technology (e.g., equipment, camera, installation, and maintenance), data storage requirements (e.g., sufficient hard drives for the specific trip duration), technical specifications, return of hard drive procedure for data extraction, data review, transmission procedures, and data protection and privacy. The establishment of such SSPs ensures the compatibility of EMS policies with existing regulatory mechanisms, such as the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), Regional Observer Program (ROP), port sampling, and High Seas Boarding and Inspection (HSBI). Also, EMS should be interoperable with other monitoring, control, and surveillance tools on the same vessel, to avoid duplication in data collection and reporting across different management measures. Lessons could be taken from other commercial fisheries with a well-established understanding of EMS programs in high fisheries governance regions, e.g., the northern EU, New Zealand, and Australia. To distinguish the duties of the EMS and human observers, there needs to be a list of data fields that indicates the individual duties of both sides, subject to data confidentiality policy and procedures in different RFMOs.

It is also essential that harmonized measures on EMSs are adopted across t-RFMOs, though not necessarily unanimously. At least, records of EMSs should be readable between different EMS services and review providers, and where possible, integrated with other data collection and monitoring tools.

5.2. Identify Data Fields of EMSs

Given that some data are difficult to collect via EMSs due to technical challenges, as mentioned by Chinese longline skippers, it is necessary to identify specific data fields and the capabilities of an EMS in collecting them in different fisheries, i.e., longline, purse seine, gillnet, pole and line, etc., and to determine the most appropriate data collection procedures. In tuna fisheries, the scientific committee of a t-RFMO is usually responsible for identifying and providing recommendations on data fields for EMSs and human observers to collect, respectively. As for those that are logistically difficult for both EMSs and observers to collect, e.g., stomach content, body length and age, etc., alternative ways are used such as port sampling, tagging, and biological sampling to get additional information. To collect data on endangered and protected species, training and incentives could be provided to encourage fishermen to bring bycatch species on board for identification before releasing as long as carried out in safe conditions.

5.3. Establish a Cloud Computing Platform for Data Accountability and Security

Data accountability refers to the continuity and accuracy of data collected on board a vessel, which requires a robust and tamper-proof EMS in rough at-sea conditions. Data security means that data submitted for review should be kept in confidentiality, with limited access by accredited parties, i.e., the records should be extracted and analyzed by qualified third parties with no conflict of interest.

Data security is not just a concern for Chinese fishermen but also causes misgivings across the fishing industry. Currently, data review is conducted by coastal states, e.g., the FMS, Fiji, the Cook Islands, etc., in the Pacific Ocean, mainly by outsourcing to companies. While checking and licensing the qualification of such reviewer companies is costly and time-consuming, which creates an extra burden on small island states, there are also concerns over data security from fishing companies. Some fishers and fishing companies regard EMSs as an intrusion of privacy [21,49]. Data and images generated by EMSs could be distributed to other stakeholders. Data themselves have physical attributes and have the core legal attributes of objects, hence they should be subject to property law. In other words, vessel monitoring data belongs to the vessel owner and the flag state and should be protected against unauthorized or unlawful processing and accidental loss, destruction, or damage. Any further action regarding the process of data, i.e., review, analysis, and transmission, by a third party, should only be conducted under the authorization of the flag country.

The establishment of a cloud computing platform could ensure data accountability and security. Multi-factor authentication could provide the platform with more layers of security than those stored in hardware on local computers. Two or more authentication factors are required if individuals and organizations need to get access to specific data. Each visit of data access could be recorded and tracked. Such as system also creates a flexible and agile remote work environment for review analysts. Reviewers would only need a time-based one-time password to get access to data. Meanwhile, rules should also be adopted to ensure that EM data are handled in a manner that complies with relevant requirements related to the confidentiality of commercial fisheries data and fishers’ privacy.

5.4. Introduce AI and Deep Learning in Data Review

Given the high labor costs and shortage of human reviewers, AI techniques could also be introduced to carry out data cleaning and pre-processing as the first step of data review, before the intervention of human reviewers to further check and ensure the credibility of analysis results.

Ideally, EMS data reviewers could be active or former at-sea observers with experience in the fisheries, who possess extensive species identification experience and who can be trained to conduct EMS data reviews. Review analysis could also be recruited from fisheries research institutes or authorities. With the continuous optimization of algorithms and modeling in machine learning, the accuracy, efficiency, and safety of AI have been greatly improved. Recently, many efforts have been made to explore the potentials of AI, and more precisely deep learning, in the field of fisheries management [50], especially in the primary stage of raw data processing. Models based on deep learning are proven to be able to identify and quantify catch and bycatch recorded by EMSs, including species identification and length estimation [51,52], which contributes to cost-effectiveness.

5.5. Provide Incentives for EMS Implementation

While the costs of EMS implementation, especially running costs and data analysis costs, are generally paid for by the industry, the potential benefits for individual fishers are not clear, and are, at least, not always of direct interest to them [21]. From the perspective of the fishing industry, incentives are needed to encourage fishers to invest in EMSs. Such incentives may include compliance incentives and financial incentives.

Compliance incentives could involve, basically, associating EMS footage review scores with the compliance performance of each fishing vessel. While vessels with high compliance scores could be rewarded by tax breaks, those with unfavorable scores may be required to accept a full review, instead of a 10% review rate of their EMS records, or to accept deployment of human observers onboard.

Financial incentives include increasing profit, cost reduction, and more quota sharing. Market partners help drive EMS implementation by committing to meeting consumer demand for sustainability. EMSs are an operational tool that supports the sustainability certification of seafood products such as MSC certificates, which in turn promote the seafood supply chain to international markets. In the EU’s case, participation in EMS trials gives vessels access to extra TAC quota, and in some cases, vessels participating in EMS trials had been exempted from the fishing day limit [53,54]. Governments could also give technical aid to promote the development of EMS equipment and support research and development in satellite transmission, image compression and decompression, and video communication. With economies of scale, EMSs would be more affordable to end users.

6. Conclusions

The importance of EMSs in tuna fisheries has been well acknowledged in much of the literature. The trials and experiences have proved that EMS is an effective tool for enhancing data integrity, increasing visibility of fishing activities at sea, and ensuring compliance with management measures. Despite the advantages of electronic monitoring on board, many challenges remain to be addressed before comprehensive implementation of EMSs could take place. Such challenges include technical issues, as well as commercial and financial concerns from fishermen. Hence it requires collaborative efforts from stakeholders to prioritize the key steps in EMS work plans, provide assistance in capacity building to advance the technologies in data collection, processing, and reviews, and adopt policies to explore incentives that facilitate the full use of EMSs in the tuna longline industry.