Digestive Physiology, Nutrition and Feeding of Arapaima gigas: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review Methodology
3. General Aspects of the Species
3.1. Distribution and Habitat
3.2. Feeding Habits
3.3. Culture and Production Cycle
3.4. Rearing Conditions
4. Nutritional Requirements
4.1. Protein and Amino Acids
Initial Weight (g) | Optimal Protein (%) | Diet | Evaluated Parameters | Facility | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
40.72 | 53.76 | Pelletized | WG | Fiberglass tank for 6 weeks | [52] |
54.00 | 50.00 | Pelletized | CF, FCR, SGR | Floating cage | [51] |
68.75 | 44.00–45.80 | Pelletized | FCR, PER, WG | Fiberglass conical tank 75 days | [54] |
86.84 | 40.00 | Extruded | FL, LG, FW, WG | Rectangular cement tank for 84 days | [53] |
120.60 | 48.60 | Extruded | FCR, SGR, WG | Floating cage for 45 days | [11] |
133.00 | 40.00 | Extruded | FB | Earthen pond for 12 months | [58] |
500.00 | 40.00 | Extruded | FCR, WG | Earthen pond for 110 days | [55] |
654.44 | 44.53 | Extruded | FCR, WG | Self-feeding system for 28 days (nutritional challenge) | [56] |
1573.30 | 56.30 | Pelletized | Not determined | Self-feeding system for 23 days (nutritional challenge) | [42] |
2000.00 | 36.00 | Extruded | FCR, WG | Tank system for 18 weeks | [8] |
2025.00 | 37.40 | Extruded | PER | Floating cage for 88 days | [59] |
4.2. Lipids and Carbohydrates
4.3. Energy and Protein:Energy Ratio
4.4. Micronutrients
5. Digestive Physiology
5.1. Morphology of the Gastrointestinal Tract
5.2. Digestive Biochemistry
5.3. Functional Parameters of the Gastrointestinal Tract
6. Feed Management
6.1. Feeding Rate
6.2. Feeding Frequency and Feeding Time
Initial Weight (g) | Optimal Feeding Frequency (Meals/Day) | Diet Used | Evaluated Parameters | Experimental Condition | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 6 | Commercial trout extruded (50% CP) | FL, FW, LG, WG | Circular tank system with continuous water flow for 80 days (T: 27.9–29.0 °C) | [99] |
30 | 2 | Commercial feed (45% CP) | SGR | Open water circulation system for 15 days | [108] |
78 | 6 | Commercial feed (45% CP) | LG | Cage system inserted in earthen ponds for 56 days (T: 29.1 °C) | [109] |
80 | 3–4 | Mixture of two commercial extruded (41.8% CP) | FW, SGR, WG | Circular tank system with continuous water flow for 63 days (T: 26.1 °C) | [113] |
240 | 7 | Extruded | LG, WG | Aquarium system for 13 months (T: 25.0–28.0 °C) | [108] |
500 | 2 | Extruded | Fish exhibited no differences for FI, FL, FCR, FW, and SGR | Recirculation systems for 8 weeks and different feeding strategies evaluated (T: 28.0–30.0 °C) | [89] |
1000 | 2 | Commercial extruded (40% CP) | FW, WG | Cage system inserted in ponds for 45 days | [112] |
7. Type of Ingredients and Their Digestibility
Ingredients in Experimental Diets | ADC Dry Matter (%) | ADC Protein (%) | ADC Gross Energy (%) | Fish Weight (g) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marine sources | |||||
Fish by-product meal | 72.3 | 77.2 | 76.1 | 204.45 | [122] |
Fish meal | 89.2 | 97.6 | 89.1 | 235.00 | [121] |
Salmon by-product meal | 83.6 | 83.9 | 75.6 | 204.45 | [122] |
Terrestrial animal sources | |||||
Blood meal | 42.1 | 38.6 | 56.0 | 204.45 | [122] |
Feather meal | 79.5 | 80.4 | 83.3 | 235.00 | [121] |
Hydrolyzed feather meal | 79.5 | 79.7 | 91.1 | 204.45 | [122] |
Meat and bone meal | 62.4 | 72.0 | 70.1 | 204.45 | [122] |
Meat and bone meal | 70.8 | 89.4 | 75.4 | 235.00 | [121] |
Poultry by-product meal | 100.6 | 83.6 | 85.7 | 204.45 | [122] |
Poultry by-product meal | 93.5 | 90.3 | 96.2 | 235.00 | [121] |
Poultry fat | 63.9 | 65.7 | 69.0 | 96.80 | [68] |
Plant sources | |||||
Broken rice | 81.1 | 80.2 | 68.5 | 131.34 | [93] |
Corn | 70.2 | 64.4 | 77.7 | 131.34 | [93] |
Corn | 76.4 | 93.4 | 40.1 | 235.00 | [6] |
Corn gluten feed 1 | 65.9 | 77.1 | 63.9 | 204.45 | [122] |
Corn gluten meal 2 | 102.4 | 93.5 | 87.8 | 204.45 | [122] |
Corn gluten meal 2 | 61.2 | 74.2 | 59.8 | 235.00 | [121] |
Corn starch | 70.7 | 90.9 | 47.9 | 235.00 | [6] |
Defatted rice bran | 76.5 | 67.1 | 56.7 | 131.34 | [93] |
Low-tannin sorghum | 77.7 | 65.9 | 54.9 | 131.34 | [93] |
Palm kernel cake | 89.0 | 96.2 | 89.8 | 322.69 | [125] |
Rice bran | 46.2 | 68.2 | 42.2 | 235.00 | [6] |
Sacha inchi cake | 83.0 | 86.4 | 84.9 | 180.00 | [124] |
Soybean meal | 61.4 | 80.8 | 71.3 | 279.22 | [126] |
Soybean meal | 76.7 | 83.8 | 58.0 | 235.00 | [121] |
Soybean meal | 79.0 | 92.4 | 83.7 | 204.45 | [122] |
Soybean oil | 65.3 | 68.5 | 70.6 | 96.80 | [68] |
Soy protein concentrate | 71.6 | 96.9 | 65.9 | 217.68 | [123] |
Wheat bran | 77.3 | 54.7 | 57.6 | 131.34 | [93] |
Wheat bran | 45.1 | 68.6 | 47.4 | 235.00 | [6] |
8. Use of Functional Feed Additives
9. Final Considerations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Brazil | Peru |
---|---|---|
2013 | 2301 | 94 |
2014 | 11,763 | 55 |
2015 | 8389 | 135 |
2016 | 1266 | 142 |
2017 | 1259 | 218 |
2018 | 1832 | 295 |
2019 | 1893 | 86 |
2020 | 1886 | 99 |
2021 | 2137 | 81 |
2022 | 2028 | 85 |
Parameters | Stage: Fingerling | Stage: Fattening | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Permissible Range | Optimal Range | Permissible Range | Optimal Range | |
Temperature (°C) | 26.0–30.0 | 27.0–28.0 | 25.0–31.0 | 27.0–29.0 |
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 4.0–7.0 | >5.0 | 4.0–7.0 | >5.0 |
Ammonium (mg/L) | <0.05 | <0.02 | <0.05 | <0.02 |
Nitrites (mg/L) | <0.05 | absent | <0.05 | absent |
pH | 6.0–8.0 | 6.0–7.0 | 5.0–8.0 | 6.5–7.0 |
Total alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3) | >30.0 | - | >20.0 | - |
Total hardness (mg/L CaCO3) | >30.0 | - | >20.0 | - |
Transparency (cm) | 30.0–60.0 | - | 30.0–60.0 | - |
Carbon dioxide (mg/L) | <20.0 | - | <20.0 | - |
Weight | 1.66 kg | 10.49 kg | 0.94 kg | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Environment | Natural | Controlled | Natural | Controlled | Controlled |
Arginine | 3.66 | 3.93 | 3.72 | 3.74 | 6.77 |
Histidine | 1.14 | 1.26 | 1.09 | 1.12 | 1.03 |
Isoleucine | 2.74 | 2.48 | 3.02 | 2.96 | 2.47 |
Leucine | 5.25 | 5.00 | 5.31 | 5.40 | 3.11 |
Lysine | 6.10 | 6.03 | 5.95 | 6.03 | 5.00 |
Methionine | 1.80 | 1.81 | 1.81 | 1.81 | Not determinated |
Methionine + Cysteine | 2.53 | 2.70 | 2.36 | 2.42 | 2.16 |
Phenylalanine | 2.73 | 2.75 | 2.64 | 2.66 | Not determinated |
Phenylalanine + Tyrosine | 4.65 | 4.76 | 4.46 | 4.42 | 4.16 |
Threonine | 2.68 | 2.72 | 2.65 | 2.62 | 1.39 |
Tryptophan | 0.54 | 0.49 | 0.55 | 0.53 | 0.43 |
Valine | 2.90 | 2.79 | 3.06 | 2.93 | 2.21 |
Nutrient | Fry/Fingerling | Grower | Juvenile/Finisher | Broodstock |
---|---|---|---|---|
Protein | 55 | 45 | 40 | 35 |
Lipid | 12 | 12 | 10 | 8 |
Fiber | <2 | <3 | <4 | <5 |
Ash | <10 | <9 | <9 | <7 |
Initial Weight (g) | Optimal Energy | Energy/Protein Ratio | References |
---|---|---|---|
12.42 | 4.0 Mcal DE/kg | 9.0 Mcal/kg | [60] |
169.81 | 4.8 Mcal DE/kg | 9.0 Mcal/kg | [71] |
345.7 | - | 8.5 kcal/g | [61] |
Average Weight (g) | Ono and Campos [48], Rodrigues et al. [98] | Aquatech’s Feed Chart | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
5–10 | 6.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 12.0 |
10–20 | 4.5 | 6.0 | 7.0 | 10.0 |
20–50 | 3.7 | 4.5 | 7.0 | 10.0 |
50–100 | 3.3 | 3.7 | 4.5 | 7.0 |
100–700 | 2.4 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 4.5 |
700–1500 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 3.5 |
1500–4000 | 1.5 | 1.9 | 1.5 | 2.5 |
4000–8000 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.5 |
8000–12,000 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 1.0 |
Average Weight (g) | Feeding Frequency | Pellet Size (mm) |
---|---|---|
5–10 | 4 | 0.8–1.0 |
10–20 | 4 | 1.5–1.7 |
20–50 | 4 | 1.7–2.5 |
50–100 | 3 | 2.5 |
100–700 | 3 | 4.0 |
700–1500 | 3 | 6.0 |
1500–4000 | 2 | 8.0 |
4000–8000 | 2 | 10.0 |
8000–12,000 | 1 | 10.0–15.0 |
Aspects | Comments |
---|---|
Gastrointestinal functionality | Further studies are required to comprehend the variations in postprandial gastrointestinal pH, gastric emptying, and gut transit rates. This will aid in understanding the physiological responses of A. gigas to feed intake. |
Digestive enzymes | The modulation of enzymes in A. gigas during postprandial digestion is not yet known. This information is necessary to identify the peaks of enzyme expression in the stomach and intestines. |
Protein and amino acids | Research on this subject has primarily focused on individuals from the juvenile stage onwards. However, there is a need to determine the nutritional requirements of protein and essential amino acids for the early stages. The ideal protein method for estimating amino acid requirements is unreliable, so research for the estimation of these nutrients should focus on dose-response methods. Additionally, further studies are required to include other variables that affect protein and amino acid requirements, such as production systems, nutritional challenges, and environmental conditions. |
Energy and P:E ratio | To date, few studies have been conducted on the subject. It is necessary to determine the E/P ratio for different sizes of A. gigas, taking into account the various stages of production. |
Lipids and fatty acids | The use of dose–response methodology, considered appropriate for determining nutritional requirements in fish, has not been employed to determine lipid levels. The available information is provided in technical documents for extension purposes, and in some cases, the recommended levels are only applicable to certain stages of the species. |
Carbohydrates | The carbohydrate levels in A. gigas have not been determined using the dose–response methodology. Further studies are needed to observe the protein-sparing effect in this species and determine the maximum levels of inclusion in the diet. |
Vitamins | Only the effects of two vitamins have been studied. Therefore, further research is necessary to determine the requirements for a larger number of vitamins. This will enable the formulation of vitamin premixes that can be included directly in the feed. |
Feeding rates | Producers make use of information that is available in technical extension manuals or information provided by the aquafeed company. Scientific information is currently only available for four specific sizes of A. gigas. To ensure efficient use of the provided feed, further studies on a larger range of sizes and culture stages are necessary. |
Feeding frequencies | Producers make use of information that is available in technical extension manuals or information provided by the aquafeed company. The studies conducted have reported varying results for the same stages of A. gigas, indicating inconclusiveness. Further studies are necessary, with adjustments made to the experimental design, to determine the optimal feed supply for the day. |
Feeding time | The studies focus solely on certain sizes of A. gigas. It is necessary to determine the optimal feeding time for the various sizes involved in the species’ production cycle to ensure optimal feed intake and nutrient utilization throughout the culture. |
Use of alternative ingredients | Although some non-traditional inputs have been evaluated, further research is required to assess the effects of including local inputs, particularly waste generated by economic activity, such as beer bran, fish, poultry, livestock, and agro-industrial waste. Additionally, aspects such as nutritional quality, price, and availability of these inputs should be taken into consideration. |
Functional additives | The focus of studies on functional additives has mainly been on improving the palatability of aquafeeds with a higher content of plant inputs or enhancing the absorption of nutrients. However, it is important to consider the effects of other functional additives such as acidifiers, gut conditioners, and phytases, which could improve the bioavailability of nutrients provided by aquafeed inputs. |
Digestibility of ingredients | Analyses of digestibility mainly focus on the DM digestibility of ingredients and/or feed, rather than the digestibility of N and P. This would enable an understanding of A. gigas’ ability to access the nutrients provided and could lead to the use of pre-digestive treatments or additives to enhance aquafeed-ingredient digestibility. |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Palomino Ramos, A.R.; Moyano López, F.J. Digestive Physiology, Nutrition and Feeding of Arapaima gigas: A Review. Fishes 2024, 9, 507. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9120507
Palomino Ramos AR, Moyano López FJ. Digestive Physiology, Nutrition and Feeding of Arapaima gigas: A Review. Fishes. 2024; 9(12):507. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9120507
Chicago/Turabian StylePalomino Ramos, Alfredo Ruben, and Francisco Javier Moyano López. 2024. "Digestive Physiology, Nutrition and Feeding of Arapaima gigas: A Review" Fishes 9, no. 12: 507. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9120507
APA StylePalomino Ramos, A. R., & Moyano López, F. J. (2024). Digestive Physiology, Nutrition and Feeding of Arapaima gigas: A Review. Fishes, 9(12), 507. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9120507