In Search of New Dimensions for Religious Tourism: The Case of the Ancient City of Nessebar

Abstract

Religious tourism is a growing phenomenon that is increasingly intertwined with cultural tourism, particularly in countries like Bulgaria, which possesses a wealthy heritage of religious interest. The Ancient City of Nessebar, a UNESCO World Heritage site with a rich religious history, provides a unique case study for examining this dynamic. This study employed a mixed-methods approach, including documentary analysis and case study methodology, to investigate the current state of religious tourism in Nessebar. The research revealed the underutilization of Nessebar’s religious sites for tourism purposes, despite their potential value. A complex interplay between mass tourism, cultural preservation, and the decline of traditional religious practices was identified.

1. Introduction

The intersection of religion, culture, and tourism has become an increasingly complex and dynamic phenomenon in the contemporary world. This paper explores heritage tourism in Nessebar, focusing on the adaptive reuse of religious spaces and the complexities of managing them as World Heritage (WH) sites, including their overlap with other mainstream forms of tourism.

Religious tourism, also known as faith tourism or spiritual tourism, is defined as travel where religious beliefs or a desire for spiritual experiences drive the tourist’s motivation [1]. While religious tourism has been a growing market segment, the adaptation of sacred spaces to accommodate tourist demands raises important questions about the preservation of cultural heritage and the authenticity of religious experiences.

According to UNESCO [2], approximately 20% of WH Sites have religious significance, encompassing a broad spectrum of cultures and faiths. Primarily revered for their spiritual or religious importance, these sites have also accrued substantial cultural and historical value.

The Ancient City of Nessebar was chosen as a case study due to its unique religious heritage adaptively reused for cultural purposes following a significant waned religious practice after the early 19th century. Ongoing debates about its future, including the potential inscription of Nessebar on the List of World Heritage in Danger, the controversial impacts of tourism, and its under-explored potential for religious tourism, make it a compelling subject of study.

UNESCO recognition interconnects global, national, and local governance, balancing the preservation of Nessebar’s rich religious and cultural heritage with sustainable tourism development, while addressing the challenges posed by the negative impacts of increasing mass tourism from the nearby Sunny Beach Resort.

The topic is extremely interesting for Bulgaria, keeping in mind that the country has inscribed ten cultural and natural properties on the WH list, six of which are of religious interest. Traditional religious practices have been abandoned in most places, except Rila Monastery, which continues to serve its original purpose. Nevertheless, the churches of Nessebar still dominate the city’s skyline and testify to the centuries when the city was a religious center.

As religion is an essential element of culture, religious sites, and their remains, are important components of cultural tourism [3]. Theoretical insights from Critical Heritage Studies (CHS) enable us to consider heritage not as static, preserved relics, but as dynamic processes shaped by socio-cultural, political, and economic factors [4]. This perspective emphasizes the processual nature of heritage, acknowledging that religious heritage sites evolve and acquire new meanings as they adapt to tourism, globalization, and cultural shifts [5].

Religious tourism is approached as a part of broader cultural and heritage tourism, referring to destinations, recognized as WH cities, integrating visitation to diverse types of religious sites, some of which have lost their initial purpose. This research delves into this dynamic by examining the interplay between tourism and the transformation of sacred spaces and churches, which have lost their original spirituality and purpose. This case study evaluates the adaptation strategies employed by the national and local management authorities in response to the evolution of religious tourism. To be successfully approached and managed, it is essential to understand how these ancient spiritual places are navigating the pressures of tourism while maintaining their significance as cultural and religious symbols. By examining the case of Nessebar, we aim to contribute to the broader discourse on the management and valorization of religious heritage in the context of tourism.

2. Materials and Methods

The main research objectives are to analyze the potential of religious tourism in Nessebar within the broader context of cultural heritage tourism.

A mixed-methods approach provides holistic understanding on how religious tourism in WH cities is influenced by tourism and heritage management in broader cultural and sustainable aspects. The documentary analysis aims to review national, regional, and local tourism policies and strategies related to religious tourism. The research design combines qualitative and quantitative methods, including documentary analysis and case study methodology for the WH Site Nessebar.

Documentary analysis was conducted to examine the national framework for tourism, regional tourist zoning, and the specific focus on religious tourism at the municipal level. This includes reviewing relevant documents such as the Bulgarian National Strategy for Sustainable Development of Tourism (2014–2030) [6], Concept of National Tourist Zoning [7], Cultural Tourism Policy analysis [8], and Cultural Heritage Strategy of Nessebar Municipality (2023–2032) [9]. The scope of analysis was to identify the extent to which religious tourism is integrated into broader tourism strategies and how these policies influence the development and management of religious heritage in the city. Most relevant national and regional tourism policy documents, UNESCO monitoring reports [10,11], and municipal strategic plans were used as primary data sources.

The Case Study Analysis is applied for the “Faith in Nessebar” project, including its objectives, implementation, outcomes, and challenges. The impact and outcomes of the project are evaluated as experience to develop religious tourism in Nessebar. The case study approach is particularly suitable for this research as it allows for an in-depth exploration of a complex phenomenon within its real-world context. The main objective was critical analysis of past initiatives and measures, their implementation strategies, the challenges they encountered, and most importantly the impacts on religious tourism development in Nessebar. Data were collected from project reports, official documentation, and strategic plans that are publicly available.

A comprehensive analysis of Bulgarian religious sites inscribed on the World Heritage List is conducted, examining their current function and accessibility. The Ancient City of Nessebar serves as a compelling case study for this research for several reasons, including its status as a heritage city and richness of religious places and churches, most of which have lost their purpose. Moreover, among many other factors, it is perceived as problematic for religious tourism development and faces tourism pressure from the neighboring Sunny Beach Resort.

To systematically assess the current state of religious sites, and churches in particular, within the Ancient City of Nessebar, a data collection, documentary analysis, and categorization process were undertaken. A statistical analysis of visitor data for churches repurposed as museums was conducted to identify trends and patterns.

By observing the religious tourism in Nessebar to assess the current state of offerings and visitor experiences. Information about churches was compiled from the official website of the Archaeological Museum in Nessebar and Cultural Heritage Strategy of Nessebar Municipality for the period 2023–2032 [9]. The data are presented in the table and figures. The categorization aims to present, in a comprehensive form, the factors relevant to their current functionality (active church, museum, ruins), accessibility (entrance fees), and their state of preservation from the point of view of integrity and conservation.

This study acknowledges several limitations. The reliance on secondary data sources restricts the depth of analysis and prevents direct observation of the churches’ current conditions. Additionally, focusing solely on Nessebar limits the generalizability of findings to other heritage sites. The position and opinion of different stakeholders is not directly addressed, but rather considered based on secondary available data and previous publications on the topic.

3. Literature Review

The CHS framework enables us to analyze heritage as an ongoing process, shaping sites like the Ancient City of Nessebar into entities continually influenced by social, political, and economic factors. Tourism, globalization, and local communities play significant roles in this dynamic process [5,12].

The influence of political power [13] and the interplay between global and local governance [14] frame the major challenges faced by Nessebar. The designation of Nessebar as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983 brought with it global recognition and strict regulations. These rules, aimed at preserving the “authenticity and integrity” of the Ancient City of Nessebar, clashed with the livelihood strategies of the residents who depend on tourism for economic survival [15]. The locals were put in a position to navigate between adhering to UNESCO regulations and leveraging their cultural heritage for economic gain and tourism development.

The representation of religious heritage in Nessebar as part of collective memory and identity [16] is not sharply controversial as part of the Eastern Orthodox religion, despite the significant influences of Byzantine and Greek cultures (education, language) over time.

Often religious tourism is discussed as a form of tourism that is not confined to one religion, involving subjective travel for spiritual betterment and self-discovery [17]. The concept of religious tourism is evolving, covering a diverse range of studies, and is concentrated in a few leading social science journals [18,19,20,21,22,23]. However, the “the ties between tourism and pilgrimage are currently unclear and poorly classified” [24]. In addition to demand, destination development, and marketing [25], the studies shift to de-differentiation, the experience economy [26], gender, tourist perceptions, technology [27], sustainable development, and the interaction between religious sites, cultural contexts, and other tourism sectors [28,29].

While pilgrimages to sacred places remain important, beyond them, there is a big shift in visits and the selection of destinations. Tourist motivations are expanding, and visitors are increasingly drawn to destinations with deeper personal significance, reflecting their individual religious affiliations and overall religiosity [30]. Religious tourism has prompted many countries, destinations, and tourism businesses to capitalize on this niche market by investing in religious and spiritual experiences [31].

Religious tourism and route-based pilgrimage is considered as a form of slow, responsible, and sustainable tourism with positive effects on the development of the regional cultures, strengthening the local traditions and cultures [32]. Religious tourism should be studied in a broader approach related to the historical buildings, sacred places, churches, etc., particularly those with religious significance. The preservation of their cultural value is crucial and should align with a more sustainable future.

Globalization, with its emphasis on consumerism and individual choice, has led to a decline in traditional religious practices and a rise in personalized spirituality [33]. According to McKercher, religious travel is under the category “Personal Quest”, which refers to travel for more personal reasons associated with self-development, improvement, and/or learning. The tourist motivation about selection of destinations and places of interest expands and evolve [34]. People are defining their own religious beliefs and experiences, creating a more diverse marketplace [35].

This new emphasis on individual experiences opens new possibilities for tourism and new religious and spiritual movements, with potential to be packaged and offered as a tourist experience. This niche has become highly explored as a new customer segment. Consequently, the religious tourism offerings have become more diverse, putting behind their core purpose and encompassing a variety of events, including the organization of weddings, themed vacations, volunteer opportunities, and visits to religious sites [36].

Drawing from Waterton and Watson’s [4] emphasis on performativity in heritage, the religious spaces in Nessebar are approached not just static relics, but as sites of performative interaction. This means exploring how tourists, locals, and religious actors engage with these spaces, turning them into venues for spiritual, cultural, and even economic performances. From a tourist perspective, this also means the creation of new memories, reshaping their understanding of spiritual and heritage significance. The process of recollection through photographs, social media posts, and personal reflections—further contributes to the evolving narrative of the site, blurring the boundaries between the past and the present [37]. A different relationship between the tourist and the heritage site is emerging and the tourist’s presence influences the cultural life of the location.

The enrichment of pilgrimage through so called “rejuvenation” has led to the loss of its religious element and unique identity that differentiates them from other types of travel [26]. Our starting point is the thesis that tourism transcends the traditional divide between the sacred and secular. Instead, it fosters a hybrid experience where pilgrimage destinations become spaces that are neither strictly modern nor traditional, but rather a blend of both [21]. As noted by Pouls et al. [3], p. 326 “Tourism, pilgrimage, religion, and spirituality mix in an ever-changing manner, at both the individual and societal level”.

While acknowledging the ongoing debate around defining religious tourism, with two primary interpretations, one focused on religious motivations and destinations and the other on tourist activities [38], this research seeks to move beyond these established approaches.

Traditional pilgrimages in Nessebar, referred as a “miniature Constantinople” began in the Early Christian period and continued through the Middle Ages, but ceased during the Ottoman rule. Currently most of the religious celebrations are following the traditional religious calendar and August 15 Assumption of the Mother of God, converted into official municipality holiday and major cultural event.

Contemporary religious tourists are driven by a shift in motivation, emphasizing the significance of the destination itself rather than solely the sacred place. As a result, religious tourism is seen as going beyond simply visiting a religious site; it involves connecting with the history, culture, and spiritual essence of the place [1,30].

The adaptive reuse of the sites goes beyond just preservation and conservation, rather than their integration into sustainable development, including tourism considering environmental, economic, and social aspects. Most successful reuse plans consider the impact on local communities, inclusive economic growth, and social justice [39]. The process of “recycling” by giving new life and by respecting their history and architecture offers a sustainable solution for outdated buildings [40]. This is achieved by engagement and active participation of local communities and stakeholders in the decision-making process at local level.

Local community involvement is crucial for the sustainable management of heritage sites, especially in the context of Nessebar, where the residents have a long-standing connection to their town’s cultural and spiritual legacy [15]. Activating local stakeholders through a community-based management approach could alleviate tensions between heritage preservation and economic interests, allowing for a more inclusive process that considers local needs alongside UNESCO’s global conservation standards. Additionally, this fosters a sense of ownership and ensures that chosen solutions are effective, beneficial, and acceptable for all stakeholders. A core issue is the achievement of a balance of interests between preserving the past and adapting these structures to meet the needs of the present and future [41]. Engaging with local stakeholders allows for a more sustainable and authentic development of religious tourism, aligning with critical heritage studies’ focus on inclusivity and participatory governance.

Religious tourism offers a multifaceted experience that goes beyond mere devotion, fostering cultural exploration and enriching tourists’ understanding of the local heritage. In Nessebar, the increased mass tourism puts a strain on sacred sites and their surrounding communities, raising questions about impacts (both positive and negative) on sustainable development.

According to Waterton and Watson [4], the so-called “in heritage” theories provide tools to evaluate tourism and management effectiveness, focusing on economic aspects such as visitor numbers and profits. In contrast, “of heritage” theories analyze heritage as a social and cultural phenomenon [4]. In this context, tourist engagement with heritage sites is not only an act of consumption but also a deeply embedded process of memory-making. Heritage spaces serve for both individual and collective identity formation [16,37].

4. Religious Tourism and Heritage Preservation: A Case Study of Nessebar, Bulgaria

The Bulgarian National Strategy for Sustainable Development of Tourism (2014–2030) identifies religious tourism as an integral part of the broader cultural and sightseeing tourism sector [6]. The strategy highlights several advantages that make Bulgaria a favorable destination for religious tourism, including the absence of religious restrictions, religious freedom, and dedicated support from government, society, and religious institutions. These factors create an optimal environment for incorporating religious elements into cultural and sightseeing experiences, thereby enhancing the country’s overall tourism potential. However, despite the abundance of religious sites, the strategy points out a significant shortcoming: religious tourism remains underdeveloped across Bulgaria’s tourist regions.

In the 2018 Product Analysis of Cultural Tourism [8], religious tourism in Bulgaria is traced back to the ancient practice of pilgrimage, a tradition spanning various religions. The primary motivations for religious tourists include affirming, deepening, or re-evaluating their personal faith. The key forms of religious tourism encompass visits to religious sites, pilgrimages, monastery stays, religious camps, participation in religious events, and forming connections with fellow believers. The analysis underscores the significant potential of religious tourism for both domestic and international markets, driven by a resurgence of interest in religion and religious monuments. Moreover, this type of tourism is recognized for fostering community and intercultural connections as part of the broader cultural tourism framework. In 2016, the Bulgarian Patriarch Neofit established the Pilgrimage and Educational Center of the Sofia Metropolis. Collaborating with a working group that included representatives from the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the tourism industry, and the cultural sector, the center developed ten pilgrimage routes that highlight Bulgaria’s Orthodox heritage [42]. The developed pilgrimage routes connect Bulgaria’s World Heritage sites—Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo, Nessebar, Boyana Church, and Rila Monastery—with internationally renowned religious centers in Athos (Greece), Jerusalem and the Holy Land (Israel), and Rome (Italy).

In 2016, The Bulgarian Patriarch Neofit established the Pilgrimage and Educational Center of the Sofia Metropolis. Collaborating with a working group that included representatives from the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the tourism industry, and the cultural sector, the center developed pilgrimage routes that highlight Bulgaria’s Orthodox heritage [42].

The implementation of pilgrimage routes in Bulgaria focuses on WH properties and several international religious centers recognized by UNESCO.

Table 1. Pilgrimages and visits to sites of religious interest/international religious centers carried out in 2024 by The Pilgrimage and Educational Centre of the Holy Metropolis, Sofia, Bulgaria.

WH Sites	WH Sites/Centers	Preserved Original Function	Pilgrimages/Visits per 2024
WH Sites of religious interest in Bulgaria	Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo	no	1
	Boyana Church	no	2
	Rila Monastery	yes	2
	Ancient City of Nessebar	no	1
Internationally recognized religious centres (WH Sites)	Rome (Italy)	yes	13
	Jerusalem and Holy land (Israel)	yes	3
	Athos (Greece)	yes	1

Source: own elaboration based on data from Pilgrimage and Educational Centre of the Holy Metropolis, Sofia, Bulgaria [43].

outlines the pilgrimages and visits undertaken or planned by the Pilgrimage and Educational Center of the Sofia Metropolis in 2024, including both WH sites of religious significance in Bulgaria and other major internationally recognized religious centers. Although these pilgrimage routes were established in 2021, the data indicates that religious tourism at WH in Bulgaria remains underdeveloped. In 2024, visits by Bulgarian pilgrims to internationally recognized religious centers (both undertaken and planned) account for 81% of all visits to religious sites in Bulgaria [43]. The data suggests that religious sites that have preserved their original purpose attract higher visitor numbers. While Bulgarian tourists currently show a preference for well-established international religious centers, there is a significant opportunity to promote national sites of religious interest. This highlights the need for targeted strategies to increase the appeal and visibility of these national sites, along with collaboration of different stakeholders (government, tourism, religious institutions, etc.)

Table 2. Bulgarian properties of religious interest on the WH list.

WH Property	Inscription	Religious Affiliation	Site Type	Original Function	Current Function	National Pilgrimage Route
Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo	1979	Christian	monastery	religious/pilgrimage	cultural	Rock Monasteries in Bulgaria1
2. Boyana Church	1979	Christian	church	religious/pilgrimage	cultural	Sofia’s Sacred Mountains
3. Thracian Tomb of Kazanluk	1979	Thracian beliefs	tomb	burial	cultural	-
4. Rila Monastery	1983	Christian	monastery	religious/pilgrimage	religious/pilgrimage/cultural	St. John of Rila—the heavenly Patron Saint of Bulgaria
5. Ancient City of Nessebar	1983	Christian	religious center	religious/pilgrimage	cultural	Nessebar—“encyclopedia” of Christian church construction2
6. Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari	1985	Thracian beliefs		burial	cultural	-

Source: own elaboration.

provides an overview of Bulgaria’s WH Sites of religious interest, examining their religious affiliation, site type, original and current function, and their association with pilgrimage routes. Bulgaria is home to seven cultural and three natural UNESCO WH Sites, with six of the cultural sites holding religious significance. The developed pilgrimage routes exclusively feature sites associated with Orthodox Christian practices, both historical and contemporary. Meanwhile, sites connected to Thracian beliefs and burial customs are integrated into broader cultural routes that highlight general heritage or specific WH elements.

Bulgaria’s national tourism zoning, outlined in the Concept of Tourism Zoning [7], identifies religious tourism as a component within six of the country’s nine regions. One of them, the Burgas Black Sea Tourism Region, focuses particularly on the Ancient City of Nessebar. As main asset is pointed that the city has been a “remarkable spiritual center of Christianity for a thousand years” and “today it is a developing and vibrant urban organism” [10]. Special attention is given to its medieval churches as the most significant attribute conveying the outstanding universal value (OUV) of the WH property.

Nessebar boasts a rich history spanning over 3000 years. Successive civilizations, from Thracians to Byzantines, have left their mark on the city [44]. Once home to over 40 churches, the peninsula now preserves just 13 of them belonging to the Antiquity (3), Middle Ages (7), and the Renaissance period (1). Renowned for its architectural and artistic heritage, Nessebar is particularly celebrated for its medieval churches, exemplifying a unique blend of Byzantine and local styles craft practices—Northeast or the Turnovo-Nessebar school [45]. These churches, architectural masterpieces adorned with intricate details, are integral to Nessebar’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV). However, their deteriorating condition necessitates urgent preservation efforts.

The Ancient City of Nessebar’s history is vibrant in terms of demographic shifts, cultural exchanges, and political governance. This turbulent past has left an indelible mark on its social and cultural development, particularly on its rich religious heritage. As it is stated in the Retrospective Statement of the Outstanding Universal value of the WH property, the Ancient City of Nessebar has been “a remarkable spiritual canter of Christianity for a thousand years” [46]. Ruins from a temple and churches from the Hellenistic period and Late Antiquity present part of the religious heritage of the city. Ivanchev [45] notes that the spread of Christianity in the early Middle Ages is marked by the beginning of serious construction of many Christian churches and monasteries on the western shore of the Black Sea. The medieval Nessebar’s churches are one of the most impressive symbols for the religious past of the city. They are valuable as architectural and artistic heritage with their impressive decoration of the facades representing the early Byzantine architecture in the “Tarnovo-Nessebar” style. They have a significant role as a factor in the historic urban environment and cultural landscape, being significant benchmarks in the urban space for centuries. The change in street structure during the Middle Ages because of the churches and the formation of the “mosaic route”, typical of the period, serve as evidence of their significant role in medieval cultural and spiritual life.

In 1829, due to heavy bombardment from the sea by the Russian army, Nessebar’s churches suffered severe damage ([45], p. 16) followed by the loss of the original functions and their integrity. Only the church “Assumption of the Mother of God” built in the 19th century has kept its original purposes even currently.

After the Liberation in 1878, migrations and demographic shifts led to a partial loss of cultural context, marking the beginning of Nessebar’s decline. The city transitioned from a district center to a town center within the newly established Eastern Rumelia. This once vibrant town experienced a downturn, characterized by abandoned houses and a dwindling population, consisting of Greeks with a small number of Bulgarians and Turks. Despite Bulgaria’s liberation and subsequent political changes, these churches never returned to their authentic functions. In 1927, they were designated as cultural monuments and following Nessebar’s declaration as an architectural reserve in 1956, some of them evolved into exhibition halls, presenting the frescoes, icons, and other objects from the movable cultural heritage of ancient Nessebar. The process of transformation of the city into a museum and leading tourist destination started at that point. Aiming to exploit the ancient city’s cultural potential and develop international tourism, politically supported, a new resort complex “Sunny Beach” was built nearby (1959), sharply shaping the tourism development of Nessebar [15].

A key turning point for Nessebar, with lasting consequences for its sustainability, was its designation as a UNESCO WH Site. On the one hand, this status helped preserve the authenticity of the churches. On the other hand, an official national policy of promoting sea, sand, and sun tourism development has begun, along with investments in the nearby Sunny Beach Resort, which triggered a surge in seasonal mass tourism, bringing controversial results. This tourism boom led to extensive changes across the city, straining infrastructure, impacting local livelihoods, city’s townscape by transforming the traditional functions of Renaissance houses.

Chronologically, the effort at municipal level regarding religious tourism start back in 2011 with the realization of “Faith in Nessebar” project aimed to enhance religious tourism by restoring, socializing, and improving accessibility to three churches: St. Paraskeva, St. John the Baptist, and St. Spas. A “Spiritual Path”, also as tourist route, linking these churches with “St. Archangels Michael and Gabriel” was also created.

The proposed route comprised three distinct itineraries: a primary route featuring prominent, well-preserved churches; a supplementary route encompassing less accessible or renowned sites; and a virtual route commemorating the former church’s location. To enhance the visitor experience, the project introduced thematic zones based on various criteria: chronological, artistic, and architectural features; the history of lost churches; educational and interpretive elements; the churches’ role in urban development; and the integration of contemporary arts.

The realization of the Project “Faith in Nessebar” itself suffered several challenges since the focus was on the restauration and socialization. The route’s structure, which was overall complex, was not entirely understandable for both tourists and local stakeholders. The route, as a tourist product, relied on the museum as the sole promotional channel and was coupled with a dearth of collaboration with other stakeholders (e.g., guides, travel agencies, etc.), which hindered the project’s outreach.

The failure of previous projects like “Faith in Nessebar” highlights the need for a more systematic approach to heritage management. It demonstrates that while “in heritage” theories may be useful for analytical project justification, they do not necessarily lead to the development of a reassembled product with tangible exchange value [4,12]. A critical approach to heritage acknowledges that it is not possible to fully understand heritage by focusing solely on material culture or discursive representation, as demonstrated in the discussed project. Instead, attention must be given to the embodied, extra-discursive, and pre-cognitive responses that visitors experience [4,37,47].

Additionally, the official strategic document [48] was not accepted and implemented. Recognizing the significant potential of its rich ecclesiastical heritage, the Nessebar Municipality’s 2013–2017 Tourism Development Program prioritized religious tourism and outlined plans to improve the proposed religious route. While the project successfully restored and displayed several churches, the broader strategy encountered severe challenges. Consequently, the Nessebar Municipality’s Sustainable Tourism Development Program (2018–2024) relegated religious tourism to a secondary position, prioritizing emerging sectors such as wedding and festival tourism, while acknowledging the significance of cultural heritage tourism.

A SWOT analysis (

Table 3. SWOT Analysis.

Strengths	Weaknesses
- WH Status adding prestige and global recognition, attracting a diverse range of tourists interested in both religious and cultural heritage. - Rich religious history and unique cultural heritage - Developed tourism infrastructure and facilities - The local community’s long-standing connection to the religious celebrations	- Over-commercialization and danger of loss of authenticity - Lack of community-based tourism (CBT) engagement and local stakeholders - Negative impacts related to mass, seasonal tourism growth and challenges for site management
Opportunities	Threats
- Heritage as soft power could be used as a tool for “heritage diplomacy” [49], strengthening both local identity and international ties through religious tourism. - Growing demand for tourism based on spiritual experience in cultural context, driven by increased interest in authentic travel. - Increasing recognition of community-based approaches as essential for achieving sustainable development and enriching cultural production of place, reflecting a broader shift toward more inclusive practices.	- Threats to loss of WH status if listed as heritage in danger - Loss of authenticity and commercialization in favor of tourism revenue

Source: own elaboration.

) summarizes how the religious and cultural heritage of Nessebar can be best utilized, considering the affective and performative dimensions of tourism and the community’s role in preserving the site’s spiritual and historical significance.

5. Results

The state of the churches and their attractiveness as spiritual and sacred places for religious tourism is included in the UNESCO Reactive Monitoring Report (2018) [11], suggesting the decline of Nessebar as a spiritual center. Legends suggest the peninsula once hosted around forty churches and monasteries. Presently, only thirteen churches remain, dated from the 5th to 19th centuries, some of them preserved as ruins. The Middle Ages marked a zenith of religious and commercial activity, a period during which Nessebar’s distinctive architectural style emerged, influenced by Byzantine traditions yet displaying local crafts. These churches, adorned with intricate facades and vibrant frescoes, are quintessential to Nessebar’s OUV [46].

However, historical evidence indicates that the city’s medieval churches ceased serving their original religious purpose well before the late 19th century, when Nessebar’s architectural allure began captivating travelers and scholars alike.

Nessebar’s strategic location on the Black Sea coast facilitated cultural exchange between the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarian Empire, and other regions. This is reflected in the church’s architecture and artistic style, which exhibit a blend of Byzantine, local, and potentially Western influences [50].

Its religious rise started in the Early Christian Period, being recognized as an Episcopal Center, resembling “miniature Constantinople”, and as a part of Haemimont Province subordinated to an Adrianoupolis diocese [44]. The Middle Ages were pivotal for the religious and spiritual prominence of the city with its monasteries and basilicas. Despite scholarly debates on the historical accuracy of past events [51], certain texts reference the discovery and subsequent transfer of the relics of Saint Theodore Stratilatus, the hand and jaws of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called, the skull of Saint Sist, and the hand of the Apostle Bartholomew from Mesemvria to Venice in 1257 [50,52,53]. These accounts highlight the city’s longstanding importance as a religious and pilgrimage center, justifying its continued inclusion on official pilgrimage routes. Between the 13th and 14th centuries, Nessebar become significant center for the commercial expansion of Italian cities in the Black Sea region. Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it attracted and become a host to Byzantine aristocrats drawn to its spirituality, culture, and openness. According to Giuzelev [52] “in the Balkan possessions of Byzantium after Constantinople the second most important church-religious center became Nessebar”.

The Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the 14th century presented new challenges and opportunities for the Orthodox Churches being forced to adapt under Islamic religion. Despite its ancient and medieval prominence, by the 16th century, Nessebar was a provincial Ottoman town that was small and showed a more profound cultural and spiritual heritage beyond its commercial status. The “high” stylistics of Eastern Orthodox culture interconnects with the “Greek”, understood as transfer and combination of the language, education, and the Ecumenical Patriarchate, originating from nominally Greek territories [50]. As early as the mid-19th century, General Helmut Moltke observed the peninsula’s picturesque charm and the remnants of its once-grand Byzantine churches, highlighting the city’s architectural evolution over time [45,54,55].

The city’s religious power underwent significant transformation by the 19th century. The medieval churches, having lost their original liturgical functions, were repurposed for secular uses. Today, most have been adapted into cultural heritage sites, preserving their architectural and artistic legacy. Notably, only one church remains active, the 19th-century “Assumption of the Mother of God. The current state of conservation and functionality of Nessebar’s churches are systematized in

Table 4. Current functionality and state of conservation of the churches in Nessebar.

N	Churches	Construction Period/Century	Current Function	Access	Entrance Fee	Integrity of the Building	State of Conservation (SOC)
1	Old Metropolis	end of 5th–beginning of 6th century	-	accessible, located in open public spaces	No	preserved—in ruin form	Good SOC
2	“St. Virgin of Eleusis”	5th century	-	accessible, located in open public spaces	No	preserved—in ruin form	Fair—need for conservation activities
3	“St. Kliment”	Before 9th century	Cultural	restricted access	No	incorporated in a building	Good SOC
4	“St. Vlaherna”	12th century	-	accessible, located in open public spaces	No	preserved—in ruin form (only the apse)	Fair—need for conservation activities
5	“St. Joan Aliturgetos”	14th century	-	restricted access	No	preserved in ruin form	Good SOC
6	“St. Archangels Michael and Gabriel”	13th century	-	restricted access	No	preserved in ruin form	Fair—need for conservation activities
7	“St. John the Baptist”	9th–10th century	Cultural	accessible	Yes	preserved	Good SOC
8	“St. Paraskeva”	13th century	Cultural	accessible	Yes	preserved	Good SOC
9	“St. Stefan”	10th–beginning of 11th century	Cultural	accessible	Yes	preserved	Good SOC
10	“Christ Pantocrator”	13th century	Cultural	closed for restoration	Yes	preserved	Fair—need for conservation activities
11	“St. Todor”	13th century	-	restricted access	Yes	preserved	Fair—need for conservation activities
12	“St. Spas”	no data	Cultural	restricted access	Yes	preserved	Good SOC
13	“Assumption of the Mother of God”	19th century	Active church	accessible	No	preserved	Good SOC

Source: own elaboration.

.

Most of the churches (six out of thirteen) currently are reused as cultural spaces hosting exhibitions related to Nessebar’s cultural heritage. Some of the churches (three out of thirteen) are in ruins, surrounded by open public spaces. Only one of the churches serves its original purposes. This indicates that they have a limited ability to be purely religious or spiritual places of interest and are important for cultural appreciation and tourism. While some churches are in a good state of conservation (eight out of thirteen), the others require conservation activities. This highlights the need for ongoing efforts to safeguard these historic structures as cultural heritage. Seven of the thirteen churches are accessible to the public without an entry fee, primarily those in a state of ruin and located in public areas.

Table 5. Visits to the churches that reused exhibition halls and other cultural events.

Reused Churches	Visitors/per Year
	2019	2020	2021	20223
“St. John the Baptist”	7164	2953	6898	11,391
“St. Paraskeva”	6199	2780	5501	7739
“St. Stefan”	53,289	8454	19,152	22,990
“Christ Pantocrator” *	18,671	–	–	–
“St. Todor” **	3168	–	–	–
“St. Spas”	11,014	2803	5321	8492
Total visits in churches	99,505	16,990	36,872	50,612
Total visits to all museums	137,883	24,945	56,312	79,740

Source: Nessebar Museum. * closed for restoration, ** restricted access

presents the number of visits to churches re-used as exhibition halls and venues for cultural events between 2019 and 2022. From all churches transformed into exhibition halls, the dominant one is “St. Stefan” as most popular attraction, contributing significantly to the overall visitor numbers. The pandemic years 2020 and 2021 exhibit a sharp decline in visitor numbers due to the global pandemic, reflecting a broader trend in the tourism industry. The data for 2022 indicates a strong recovery, with visitor numbers surpassing pre-pandemic levels in some cases. While the churches contribute significantly to overall museum visitation, they represent a portion of the total museum visits, suggesting that the city offers a diverse range of cultural attractions.

6. Discussion

Regarding political power [37], it should be noted that it was by a political decision back in 1956 that the government declared Nessebar and its coastline a “museum, tourist, and resort complex of national and international importance”. This strategic decision aimed to use the ancient town as a cultural resource for the planned nearby Sunny Beach Resort, linking its heritage protection and exhibition with regional tourism development. This initiative represented the government’s intention and authority to involve all relevant institutions in this large-scale project. The tourism growth changed Nessebar’s development, and the latest UNESCO monitoring reports [10] highlighted several issues that should be addressed at both national and local levels in tension with economic interests and tourism development. Although the official national position is clear and in line with global governance, concrete responsibilities are deferred or postponed, often left for future administrations to handle (both on national and local level).

With respect to collective memory and identity [16], tensions could be found back in time even in the religious field (Eastern Orthodox). The migration waves after the Convention for the Exchange of Minorities between Bulgaria and Greece (1919), the Greek-Turkish War (1921–1922), and the Inter-Government Decision of 1926 for the exchange of refugees between Bulgaria and Greece (Aegean Thrace) changed the profile of the local population. This migration waves reflected on the religious field, when in 1926, some of the saints’ relics were taken by the leaving Greek population from Nessebar (Mesemvria) to the twin town of Nea Mesemvria in Greece, as noted by Mutafov [46].

The historical and architectural significance of Nessebar’s churches appeals to visitors interested in the cultural heritage of religious sites. However, the potential for religious (pilgrimage) tourism is quite limited due to the significant decline in religious practices after the early 19th century. Instead, there is an opportunity to develop spiritual tourism by attracting visitors seeking reflection and a deeper connection with historical spirituality. The tourists engage with religious sites not just as passive observers but as active participants in the creation of new memories, reshaping their understanding of the spiritual and historical significance of these spaces. This process of recollection—through photographs, social media posts, and personal reflections—further contributes to the evolving narrative of the site, blurring the boundaries between the past and the present.

From a governance perspective, the focus is on the adaptive reuse and conservation of these religious sites, highlighting them as integral elements of the broader cultural heritage narrative.

The analysis of strategic documents reveals a clear shift in recent years from a narrow definition of religious tourism. Bulgaria, with its rich religious heritage and supportive policy environment, holds significant potential for religious tourism. However, pilgrimage, particularly to Orthodox Christian sites, remains the dominant form of religious tourism. Unfortunately, many religious sites, especially those outside the Orthodox tradition, suffer from poor accessibility and limited promotion. Additionally, a considerable number of Bulgarian religious tourists prefer visiting internationally recognized religious centers.

Efforts to revitalize and develop religious tourism in Nessebar, such as the “Faith in Nessebar” project, have not met with success. The project mistakenly assumed that restoring churches, improving accessibility, and creating a thematic route would automatically attract year-round visitors, positioning Nessebar as a cultural and pilgrimage destination. This approach overlooked the fact that many of these churches had ceased to function as active religious sites and were viewed more as tourist attractions or cultural landmarks. Despite careful efforts to present the churches in ways that respected their sacred nature and historical significance, these initiatives failed to stimulate religious tourism. Insufficient marketing and a lack of collaboration with local stakeholders further hindered the project’s impact.

Traditional religious tourism and pilgrimage, as narrowly defined, have limited potential for revitalization. The focus on religious and spiritual aspects, reliance on predefined routes, and static signage resulted in a passive tourist experience, and, crucially, failed to make the route recognizable among tourists. Moreover, Nessebar’s image as a destination offering diverse experiences contrasts with a heavy emphasis on religious tourism, which appeals to a limited visitor segment. This is especially true given the seasonal, sun–sea–sand tourist profile centered around the nearby Sunny Beach Resort.

Data shows that most of Nessebar’s churches have been repurposed as venues for cultural events and exhibitions, emphasizing their cultural rather than purely religious significance. Only one church has retained its original function, indicating a limited capacity to serve as primary destinations for religious tourism. While this transformation helps preserve the city’s architectural heritage, it also underscores the need to diversify visitor experiences beyond religious themes.

The varying states of conservation among the churches highlight the ongoing challenges in preserving these historical structures. Despite these challenges, offering free access to most churches reflects a commitment to cultural accessibility and tourism. While these 5th–14th century churches hold immense historical and religious significance, shifting demographics, evolving religious practices, and the need for sustainable preservation necessitate a re-evaluation of their role in contemporary Nessebar. Reusing and integrating these structures into a broader cultural tourism framework offers an opportunity to expand their reach, attract a wider audience, and ensure their long-term preservation [40].

In Nessebar, adapting churches for events such as concerts and weddings represents a departure from their original purpose but has successfully integrated them into contemporary urban life. This trend is reflected in the rising number of weddings held in the city, increasing from 107 in 2017 to 151 in 2023. These historic sites have also become popular photography backdrops, supported by the development of tourist infrastructure and promotional effort at the municipal level.

7. Conclusions

Bulgaria has a substantial foundation for developing religious tourism, characterized by a rich religious heritage and supportive policy environment. However, the sector remains untapped, with a particular focus on Orthodox Christianity and limited exploration of other religious traditions.

To fully capitalize on the potential of religious tourism, concerted efforts are needed to develop infrastructure, promote diverse religious sites, and create engaging pilgrimage experiences. Addressing the imbalance between domestic and international religious tourism is also crucial for the sector’s growth.

By strategically developing religious tourism, Bulgaria can enhance its tourism offerings, foster intercultural exchange, and preserve its valuable religious heritage.

Our findings suggest that places of religious interest can impact and bring religious tourism into a new dimensions and perspectives. The overwhelmed focus on architectural aspects of the churches, as in Nessebar, should be diversified by different events and thematic tours to add more value and spiritually enrich visitor experiences. Nessebar is not an exception, as religious heritage-making often relies heavily on infrastructural dynamics [56].

Nessebar keeps a strong connection with religion. While religious tourism, narrowly defined, faces challenges in resurgence, the deep-rooted Christian influence in Nessebar is evident in the transformation of traditional religious celebrations, such as the August 15 Assumption God, into official municipality holidays. There are many legends related to the Holy Virgin of Magara church, known today as “The Holy Assumption”, the “miracles of the Holy Virgin”, and wonder-working icons, performing miracles and fulfilling requests [44].

Nessebar’s image as a destination is far away from any religious or pilgrimage destination. Nessebar lacks “refreshment”, which is what happened in the nearly located Sozopol, where the relics of St John the Baptist were found in 2010. The attempts to develop specialized “spiritual paths” and tours around churches did not manage to enhance religious tourism. In contrast to other pilgrimage routes (e.g., Camino de Santiago in Spain, via Francigena in Italy, Shikoku Pilgrimage in Japan), the Nessebar route is of extremely limited duration and of intensive concentration in small space of area, overwhelmed by distinct cultural layers of heritage and history. The focus on the long way lost the initial religious purpose, and the architecture does not contribute to the re-emergence of religious tourism.

Post-secular tourism transcends the traditional divide between the sacred and secular. Instead, it fosters a hybrid experience where pilgrimage destinations become spaces that are neither strictly modern nor traditional, but rather a blend of both. According to Hill et al. [57], spirituality can be found in anything that fosters a sense of transcendence, connection, or deep personal meaning through associated rituals. This concept extends to travel, where the “sacred” for the modern traveler (the “post-tourist”) lies in the intent behind the journey and the lasting impact anticipated upon completion [58]. The power of the journey and tourist experience does not solely reside in the destination itself, but in the personal transformation sought by the traveler.

Nessebar, as a former religious center, has shifted from being a pilgrimage destination to a site where tourists seek both cultural and spiritual experiences. This shift reflects broader global trends in tourism, where visitors engage with religious heritage not only for its historical value but also for personal spiritual enrichment [24,38].

As noted by Benussi [56], the way religion, infrastructure, society, and technology interact in the present day creates a complex and dynamic environment. This environment brings together various aspects of life, leading to both positive and negative consequences for religious tourism.

Religious tourism has the potential to attract a different demographic, focusing on individuals and smaller groups who seek spiritual enrichment and cultural and heritage appreciation. From a governance perspective, religious tourism can be strategically developed as an off-peak or shoulder season attraction. This shift towards quality over quantity can alleviate the pressure of over tourism. The adaptive reuse of religious sites offers an opportunity to create unique experiences that blend religious heritage with cultural and event activities. This can add value and enrich visitors’ experience. Developing religious tourism with an emphasis on sustainability involves engaging local communities and stakeholders in the process.

Developing religious tourism in Nessebar necessitates a collaborative, sustainable approach involving public, private, and community stakeholders. Religious sites and churches, often publicly owned, offer a unique opportunity to invest in infrastructure while mitigating local concerns about authenticity. By adaptively reusing these spaces, Nessebar can stimulate economic growth, enhance residents’ quality of life, and preserve its OUV without compromising its heritage.

Moreover, religious tourism should not be a “battle” for one city or municipality, but rather be integrated at the national level through targeted marketing and international promotion, together with Orthodox Church participation and involvement.

In conclusion, this paper reframes the study of Nessebar’s heritage tourism through a CHS lens, emphasizing the importance of authenticity, identity, community engagement, and the development of religious heritage, which are continuously shaped by social, cultural, and political forces.