Development of a Hyperspectral Imaging Protocol for Painting Applications at the University of Seville
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Application on Pigments
2.1.1. Reference Painted Panels
- -
- white lead (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2)
- -
- lead-tin yellow (Pb2SnO4)
- -
- verdigris (Cu(CH3CO2)2·(H2O))
- -
- malachite (Cu2(CO3)(OH)2)
- -
- yellow ochre (Fe3+O(OH))
- -
- vermilion (HgS)
- -
- haematite (Fe2O3)
- -
- carmine red (C22H20O13)
- -
- ultramarine (Na7Al6Si6O24S3)
- -
- azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2)
2.1.2. Selected Areas from a 17th-Century Oil Painting
2.2. Hyperspectral Cameras
- -
- RGB images with correction for tristimulus values (red = 630, green = 532, blue = 465).
- -
- Punctual and average spectra for each pigment present on the selected areas, excluding those with traces of underdrawings, the translucent layers, and areas with gaps or imperfections.
- -
- Application of the 2D contour function, selecting the most representative wavelength to image the underdrawings. The images were converted to black and white.
- -
- Application of the PCA model function to obtain a PCA plot along with a false-colour image showing the distribution of different materials.
2.3. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
2.4. Ultraviolet Luminescence Photography (UVL)
2.5. Infrared Reflectography (IRR)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Painted Panels
3.2. First Application on the 17th-Century Oil Painting Virgen Con Niño
3.2.1. Ultraviolet Luminescence Photography (UVL) and Infrared Reflectography (IRR)
3.2.2. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
3.2.3. Hyperspectral Imaging
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Name | Priming Layer (Square 1) | First Layer (Square 2) | Second Layer (Square 3) | Third Layer (Square 4) |
---|---|---|---|---|
W1 | White lead | White | Malachite | Yellow ochre |
W2 | White lead | Lead-tin yellow | Haematite | Azurite |
W3 | White lead | White lead | Lead-tin yellow | Vermilion |
W4 | White lead | Haematite | Azurite | White lead |
W5 | White lead | Haematite | Vermilion | Lead-tin yellow |
W6 | White lead | Lead-tin yellow | Haematite | Azurite |
W7 | White lead | White lead | Lead tin yellow | Vermilion |
W8 | White lead | Haematite | Vermilion | Lead-tin yellow |
R1 | Haematite | White lead | Lead-tin yellow | Vermilion |
R2 | Haematite | Haematite | Azurite | White lead |
R3 | Haematite | Haematite | Vermilion | Lead-tin yellow |
Name | Priming Layer | Pigment 1 (Square 1) | Pigment 2 (Square 2) | Pigment 3 (Square 3) | Pigment 4 (Square 4) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
W9 | White lead | Vermilion | Yellow ochre | Malachite | Azurite |
R4 | Haematite | Malachite | Azurite | Vermilion | Yellow ochre |
TE1 | Binder: tempera based on egg | ||||
White lead | Malachite | Carmine | Ultramarine | Verdigris | |
LO1 | Binder: linseed oil | ||||
White lead | Malachite | Carmine | Ultramarine | Verdigris | |
AG1 | Binder: animal glue | ||||
White lead | Malachite | Carmine | Ultramarine | Verdigris |
Hyperspectral Cameras | Push-Broom | Snapshot | |
---|---|---|---|
VNIR | SWIR | VNIR | |
Focus distance | 48 cm | 47 cm | 31 cm |
Exposure | 3000 a.u. | 10,000 μs | 14 ms |
Speed | 3.38 sec per tile | 4.7 mm/s | - |
Frame period | 25,000 a.u. | 10,000 Hz | 1′23” |
Light position | 45° | 45° | 45° |
Irradiance | 0.1 × 10−3 W/m2 | 1.4 × 10−3 W/m2 | 0.8 × 10−3 W/m2 |
Pigment | Spectral Shape | Peak Positions (nm) | Shift (Linseed Oil) (nm) | Attenuation (Arabic Gum) (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Verdigris | Single peak between | 532–582 | From 550 to 532 | 4 |
Malachite | Single peak between | 525–548 | From 545 to 525 | 9 |
Carmine | S-shaped band | 600–620 | From 600 to 620 | 2 |
Ultramarine | Single peak and shoulder-like band | 448–471, 783 | From 468 to 448 | 5 |
Vermilion | Shoulder-like band | 617 | - | - |
Azurite | Main single peak and small shoulder-like band | 470, 740 | - | - |
Haematite | Shoulder-like band next to the main single peak | 600, 743 | - | - |
Yellow ochre | Double peak | 584, 752 | - | - |
Lead-tin yellow | S-shaped band | 500 | - | - |
White lead | Shoulder-like band | 600 | - | - |
Point | Area | Elements | Pigments | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Virgin | Blue mantle | Ca 2, Mn 1, Pb 3, Fe 2 | Prussian Blue, White Lead, Umber Earth |
2 | Reddish dress | Ca 2, Fe 2, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Vermilion, Red Ochre, Bone Black, Copper-Based Pigment | |
3 | Light Brown Sleeve | Ca 2, Fe 1, Cu 1, Pb 3 | Red Ochre, Bone Black, Copper-based pigment | |
4 | Retouched area on the arm (yellowish) | Ca 2, Ti 2, Cr 1, Mn 1, Pb 3, Hg 1, Fe 1, Zn 1 | Umber Earth, Chrome Yellow, Vermilion, Titanium White, Zinc White | |
5 | Sleeve of the Virgin (light yellow) | Ca 2, Fe 1, Sn 2, Pb 3 | Lead-Tin Yellow, Yellow Ochre, White Lead | |
6 | Sleeve of the Virgin (dark yellow) | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Sn 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Lead-Tin Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Umber Earth, Copper-based pigment | |
7 | Dress | Ca 3, Fe 1, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Vermilion, Red Ochre, Copper-based pigment | |
8 | Brownish collar | Ca 1, Pb 3, Hg 1, Cu 1, Fe 1 | Vermilion, Red Ochre, White Lead, Copper-based pigment | |
9 | Light collar | Ca 2, Fe 1, Zn 1, Pb 3 | Zinc White, Ochre, White Lead | |
10 | Brown sleeve | Ca 2, Fe 1, Cu 1, Pb 3 | Red Ochre, White lead, Copper-based pigment | |
11 | Dark brown sleeve | Ca 2, Ti 1, Cr 1, Mn 1, Fe 2, Zn 1, Pb 3 | Titanium White, Zinc White, Yellow Ochre, Umber Earth, Manganese Black, White lead, Chromium Yellow | |
12 | Lips | Ca 2, Fe 1, Hg 2, Pb 3 | Red Ochre, Vermilion, White Lead | |
13 | Cheek | Ca 1, Fe 1, Sn 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Lead-Tin Yellow, Vermilion, White Lead, Red Ochre | |
14 | Restored nostril | Ca 2, Ti 2, Cr 1, Fe 2, Zn 1, Hg 2, Pb 3 | Chromium Yellow, White Lead, Vermilion, Zinc White, White Lead, Red Ochre | |
15 | Eye (brown) | Fe 2, Ca 2, Mn 1, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Umber Earth, Vermilion, Copper-based pigment | |
16 | Eye (black) | Ca 3, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Manganese Black, Vermilion, Bone Black, Copper-based pigment | |
17 | Restored forehead | Ca 2, Ti 3, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cr 1, Zn 3, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Chrome Yellow, Umber earth, White Lead, Zinc White, Titanium White | |
18 | Hair (yellowish) | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Yellow Ochre, Umber Earth, Vermilion, Copper-based pigment | |
19 | Hair (brown) | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Umber Earth, Yellow Ochre, Vermilion, Copper-based pigment | |
20 | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Zn 1, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Manganese Black, Red-Yellow Ochre, Vermilion, Zinc White, Copper-based pigment | ||
21 | Ca 3, Ti 1, Cr 1, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Zn 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Titanium White, Zinc White, Manganese Black, Yellow Ochre, Vermilion, Chrome Yellow, White Lead, Copper-based pigment | ||
22 | Light Blue Dress | Pb 3, Ca 2, Fe 1 | White Lead, Prussian Blue | |
23 | Goldfinch (Black) | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Hg 2, Pb 3 | Manganese Black, Bone Black, Vermilion, Copper-based pigment | |
24 | Goldfinch (Red) | Ca 2, Fe 1, Hg 3, Pb 3 | Vermilion, Red Ochre, White Lead | |
25 | Child | Cheek | Ca 2, Fe 1, Sn 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Lead-Tin Yellow, White Lead, Vermilion, Red Ochre |
26 | Reddish hand | Ca 2, Fe 1, Hg 2, Pb 3 | Vermilion, Red Ochre, White Lead | |
27 | Hair | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Cu 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Yellow Ochre, Manganese Black, Vermilion, White Lead, Copper-based pigment | |
28 | Greyish mantle | Pb 3, Cu 1, Fe 2 | Prussian Blue, White lead, Azurite | |
29 | White mantle | Ca 2, Fe 1, Pb 3 | White lead, Yellow Ochre | |
30 | Dark skin tone of the leg | Ca 2, Fe 1, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Vermilion, White lead, Red Ochre | |
31 | Light skin tone of the leg | Ca 1, Fe 1, Sn 1, Hg 2, Pb 3 | Vermilion, White lead, Red Ochre, Lead-Tin Yellow | |
32 | Skin tone of the leg | Ca 2, Mn 1, Fe 2, Hg 1, Pb 3 | Vermilion, Manganese Black, Bone Black | |
33 | Background (brown) | Ca 3, Ti 1, Fe 2, Mn 1, Zn 1, Pb 2 | Titanium White, Zinc White, Bone Black, Manganese Black, Ochre |
Oil Painting | Panels | Test | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Motorized SWIR | Motorized VNIR | Portable VNIR | Motorized SWIR | Motorized VNIR | Portable VNIR | Camera | |
X | ✔ | X | ✔ | ✔ | Spectra of the pigments | Applications | |
Imaging of brushstrokes, craquelure, conservation state | 1. Drawing at ~1300–1400 nm 2. Very good im-age of brushstrokes, craquelure, sur-face conservation | 1. Drawing at ~800 nm but losing information on very opaque and multilayered areas 2. Good imaging of brushstroke, craquelure, and sur-face conservation state | Wavelength selection (2D contour function) | ||||
False separation due to IR information related to the vibrational bonds | Small separation (due to the abundance of mixtures from the oil technique) | False separation due to IR information related to the vibrational bonds | Very good separation | Good separation | PCA model | ||
Enhancement of the surface and brushes | Better differentiation on small selections | Enhancement of the surface, conservation state and brushstrokes | Very good visual differentiation even in similar colours | Good visual differentiation even in similar colours | PCA false colour image | ||
High penetration in depth | High image and spectra resolution, very good RGB image | 1. Portable, quick calibration, large area/whole painting 2. Classification method | High penetration in depth | High image and spectra resolution, very good RGB images | Portable, quick calibration, large areas/whole painting | Advantages | |
Small areas of analysis, rough surface | Small areas of analysis | Low resolution, noisy spectra | Small areas of analysis | Low resolution and noisy spectra | Disadvantages |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Vasco, G.; Aureli, H.; Fernández-Lizaranzu, I.; Moreno-Soto, J.; Križnar, A.; Parrilla-Giraldez, R.; Gómez-González, E.; Respaldiza Galisteo, M.A. Development of a Hyperspectral Imaging Protocol for Painting Applications at the University of Seville. Heritage 2024, 7, 5986-6007. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7110281
Vasco G, Aureli H, Fernández-Lizaranzu I, Moreno-Soto J, Križnar A, Parrilla-Giraldez R, Gómez-González E, Respaldiza Galisteo MA. Development of a Hyperspectral Imaging Protocol for Painting Applications at the University of Seville. Heritage. 2024; 7(11):5986-6007. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7110281
Chicago/Turabian StyleVasco, Giovanna, Hélène Aureli, Isabel Fernández-Lizaranzu, Javier Moreno-Soto, Anabelle Križnar, Rubén Parrilla-Giraldez, Emilio Gómez-González, and Miguel Angel Respaldiza Galisteo. 2024. "Development of a Hyperspectral Imaging Protocol for Painting Applications at the University of Seville" Heritage 7, no. 11: 5986-6007. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7110281