Role-Playing as a Didactic Strategy for Teaching Intangible Heritage: An Intervention with Trainee Teachers

Abstract

Heritage education has been marked over the years using expository methodologies, as well as by a heritage education that hardly considers intangible assets. In the face of these limitations, there are continuous calls for a transformation of heritage education, which requires significant changes in teacher training. This transformation requires the incorporation of active methodologies that increase student participation, stimulate their interest and facilitate the understanding of heritage from an integrative perspective. In this context, the results of a didactic intervention that implements a role-playing strategy with teachers in training are presented. The objective is to validate the potential of this didactic strategy in heritage education. Specifically, the activity addresses the current social problems related to the loss of traditional crafts, as a representative part of intangible heritage. For this purpose, five situations were selected for the students to represent after a group research process: old Mesta cattle breeders, cork extractors, charcoal burners, the problem of large landowners and the possibilities of rural tourism for the knowledge of intangible heritage. Eighty-seven interviews were conducted to learn about their perception of the methodology. The results show that role-playing is an effective strategy for learning about heritage. It proved to be a motivating and effective strategy for understanding complex historical issues, as well as for developing the capacity for reflection and critical thinking.

1. Introduction

Over the years, traditional educational systems have perpetuated a unidirectional teaching model, based on the transmission of unequivocal content and immovable truths, reproduced on a large scale in textbooks. Historical narratives that legitimize a unique past, fundamentally alienated from the interests of hegemonic social groups, have proliferated in the Social Sciences [1,2]. This approach keeps social minorities on the sidelines [3], making gender, race or class differences invisible, which hinders and prevents a full understanding of past and present reality.

As a result of these omissions, there are appeals aimed at making invisible people and groups visible, which is a major step in the transformation of Social Science teaching [4,5]. The work of Evans and Saxe [6] had a great impact on this transformation, promoting education based on relevant social problems, which are also classified as urgent and important [7]. At the same time, other closely related trends emerged, such as studies on burning social conflicts [8], socially live issues [9,10], difficult histories [11] or controversial issues [12,13].

All these lines of research have nuances that distinguish them from each other, although they all converge in the same idea: to question the absence of information, addressing those issues that are often ignored in school curricula [14]. Issues such as economic inequalities, poverty, discrimination, social exclusion, cultural commodification, the suffering of colonization or the displacement of local traditions and practices are some examples that obey the new teaching paradigm. They are mainly oriented to encourage debate, reflection and deep questioning [15].

In the specific field of heritage, these silences and omissions are often related to intangible heritage. Given the dominance of the tangible dimension in heritage teaching and learning [16], insufficient attention is paid to the intangible dimension inherent in any heritage asset [17,18]. This lesser interest has repercussions on the understanding of certain cultural manifestations, such as the learning of traditional trades, ancestral production processes that define vernacular constructions, lifestyles that determine the identity of different populations or local gastronomy, which are essential for a more holistic and real understanding of heritage.

This lack of approach to the intangible dimension of heritage not only makes it difficult to understand and appreciate this unique legacy but also contributes to its devaluation, oblivion and degradation, affecting the survival of many manifestations that are now seriously threatened [19]. All this entails an irremediable symbolic and identity loss of those communities that see their exclusive and differentiating cultural practices forgotten. Some examples can be found in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List, which requires urgent safeguarding measures [20], although the peculiarities of each locality or region, which have other expressions of intangible heritage that are also in danger of disappearing, should be added to this. In view of this delicate situation, the neglect of intangible heritage is one of the relevant social problems that must be addressed urgently in the classroom.

This context has led recognized international and national organizations to make continuous calls for the valuation of these intangible manifestations; calls that began with the application of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003) [21]. Also noteworthy in this regard are the lines of action addressed by the Strategy for European Cultural Heritage for the 21st Century [22], which expressly mentions the enhancement of the intangible value as a representative symbol of local and regional peculiarities while promoting its use and integration at different educational levels. Along the same lines, and more specifically, the European Union, in the Council Conclusions on cultural heritage as a strategic resource for a sustainable Europe [23], stresses the importance of transferring traditional skills and crafts.

Other examples, this time on the national scene, are the Law for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage [24] or the National Plan for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage [25], both of which explicitly state their interest in transferring ancestral techniques and knowledge associated with the diversity of local cultures and point out the urgency to act especially in those manifestations in danger of disappearing. To this end, educational administrations and universities are urged to include knowledge and appreciation of this heritage in their programs.

In addition, addressing these social issues has recognized educational benefits. Among them, it allows students to relate school contents to their immediate reality [26]. By addressing a conflict or a problem that is related to their immediate environment, the dissociation that usually occurs when school is not related to what happens in everyday life is avoided. It also favors the recognition of socio-cultural diversity. By making visible issues, identities and groups that have traditionally been excluded or have had less weight in teaching, it contributes to counteracting the culture of silence [27] while promoting democratic education [3].

At the same time, dealing with relevant social problems in the classroom actively contributes to the formation of critical thinking and the development of social competencies, elements that are especially in demand in the current educational system [28,29,30]. The current Education Law in force in Spain, Organic Law 3/2020, of 29 December 2020, which amends Organic Law 2/2006, of 3 May 2006, on Education [31], promotes the development of critical thinking and active citizenship as a competence that must be developed at all educational levels.

Together with the above, the European Higher Education Area based on the Bologna agreement also highlights the need to rethink teaching processes. Since then, there have been many studies that, in the particular field of Social Sciences, defined the need to make changes in the curriculum and teacher training [26,32,33,34,35]. These changes imply transforming educational intervention, evolving towards active, reflective and autonomous learning methods for students and oriented towards the formation of competencies for the real world [36]. Therefore, the incorporation in classrooms of pedagogical approaches that favor experiential learning, also known as “learning by doing”, is encouraged [29,37] and currently finds its greatest expression through active methodologies.

In view of these new demands, role-playing is a very useful teaching–learning strategy, both for adapting teaching practice to the new field of European Higher Education in general [38] and for teaching the Social Sciences [39] and heritage in particular [40,41,42]. One of the most relevant contributions to this teaching strategy is the one made by Brell [43], who defines role-playing as a playful activity in which participants interpret behavioral models different from their own. Unlike simulation games, in role-playing, not only is a specific scene interpreted, but the characters also assume a specific role.

There are different modalities of role-playing games. Brell classified them into tabletop and live role-playing [43]. However, other more current classifications add to this classification, including role-playing games that use information and communication technologies and role-playing games by mail [44]. One of the variants with the greatest applicability in the classroom is that of live-action role-playing (LARP). For their development, the teacher must provide the students with sufficient information on the situation, problem or conflict to be represented, as well as the characteristics of the character whose role they are going to assume [38].

The educational potential of role-playing games lies in the numerous benefits they bring to teaching [38,43,45,46], which make them an excellent learning tool [47]. These benefits have direct applicability at any educational level, as they have been tested from Primary and Secondary Education [41,48,49] to the university level [50,51,52].

Among their benefits, the need to play in the first person makes role-playing games particularly useful for instilling values such as empathy, respect or tolerance. For example, by having to assume the place of another person, students have the possibility of experiencing other cultures, ethnicities or social groups, sympathizing with them [53]. In addition, this is especially relevant in the development of cooperative, communicative and investigative skills [39,54,55], promoting research and analysis tasks in students, who must be sufficiently informed about the reality of the character they are going to play, as well as about the historical context in which the events take place.

In addition to the above, the performance of role-playing games based on real or nearby cases facilitates the transfer of knowledge, increases curiosity and interest in them and favors connection with the real world, fostering meaningful learning [48]. It also highlights its potential to increase student motivation [45,56] and consequently their academic performance [57,58].

Perhaps one of the main benefits is the wide range of possibilities that role-playing games provide for the projection of problems of different nature [43]. If the subject matter requires the resolution of a conflict, it encourages students to reflect and make decisions, which has a positive impact on the development of critical thinking [30,53,59]. This fact is especially relevant because, although current educational legislation demands the need to promote critical thinking at all educational stages, the fact is that current teachers devote little time to these activities [30,52].

In spite of the broad educational benefits mentioned above, role-playing games are still a methodological strategy rarely used in Spanish universities [38] and in initial teacher training [60]. This disuse may perhaps be due to causes such as the scarce research that exists on this practice [46,53], the difficulties in establishing guidelines on how to apply it in the classroom or the lack of commitment, preparation time or inexperience of teachers to develop it [57,61].

The educational possibilities of role-playing have been addressed in several areas of knowledge, although research has mainly been extended in the field of environmental education [62,63,64], as well as in mathematics [65,66], attitude change [56,67], English [68], accounting [52], history [48,69,70,71], sex education [72] or heritage [73], although the latter is still underrepresented [41].

There are hardly any precedents that directly link the incidence of role-playing with heritage education, although it is an excellent teaching tool for developing empathy, an essential value in the establishment of heritage links [41]. By interpreting the lifestyles, feelings or perspectives of other social and cultural groups, processes of enhancement and awareness are generated. Therefore, they are a very useful means to deepen moral dilemmas [53].

In this context, role-playing games can help to understand the mutable character of heritage. The recognition of a given property as heritage depends on what individuals, communities, social groups, laws or certain collectives consider as a representative symbol of their identity [74]. In other words, the true value of heritage lies in the emotional bond that people establish with heritage assets. Therefore, it is essential to develop pedagogical strategies that promote empathy and strengthen these emotional bonds in students [75,76]. For this purpose, role-playing is presented as an ideal strategy.

In addition, role-playing integrates some elements of game-based learning that contribute to motivating and encouraging student participation, making it an excellent resource to mitigate the discouragement that students tend to have towards some eminently historical, geographical or heritage contents [71]. However, social issues of great importance, such as the preservation of cultural heritage associated with specific regions or communities, have yet to be addressed in the classroom [77].

This study is based on several research problems:

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The supremacy of the tangible dimension of heritage over its intangible value. This is a situation that may limit the understanding and appreciation of intangible manifestations (P₁).

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The lack of time teachers dedicate to the development of critical thinking in students. This challenge is particularly acute in Social Science subjects, which are characterized by an entrenched rote approach (P₂).

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The scarcity of research on the application of role-playing in heritage teaching (P₃).

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Difficulties in establishing clear guidelines for the implementation of role-playing in the classroom (P₄). The lack of concrete guidelines limits its adoption by teachers and restricts its potential as an educational tool.

Starting from these problems and based on the broad educational possibilities of role-playing, this study analyzes the results of a didactic intervention that implements this method with teachers in training. In line with the need for further research on tools and techniques that promote the training in heritage education of future teachers [78], the main objective is to explore the educational benefits offered by role-playing, in particular for the valuation and learning of intangible heritage (O₁). Furthermore, this study also aims to identify the possible limitations of its application (O₂), as well as to establish guidelines to promote and improve its implementation in the classroom (O₃).

The main hypothesis of this study considers that the role-playing strategy provides numerous benefits for approaching intangible heritage (H₁). In addition to facilitating the approach and understanding of heritage from a holistic and global perspective, it promotes reflection and deep questioning in students, favoring the development of critical thinking. The second hypothesis is that students have limited training in heritage education, which represents a significant obstacle to the effective practice of role-playing (H₂). Finally, the third hypothesis states that, before conducting the activity, it is necessary to develop more frequent interpretative activities, which favor the progressive disinhibition of the students and help them feel more comfortable and confident (H₃).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Sample

According to its methodological approach, this study is classified within the family of didactic–conceptual research, which focuses on the didactics of heritage in formal teaching contexts [79]. Specifically, it seeks to determine the assessment of teachers in training on the educational possibilities of the role-playing strategy for the teaching and learning of intangible heritage. This study involved eighty-seven students from the University of Extremadura who are in the third year of their degree in Primary Education. Therefore, they have already had contact with various subjects linked to the area of the didactics of Social Sciences. Specifically, among the contents of the didactics of Geography and didactics of History, the didactics of heritage is included. However, previous research has shown that students of this same degree have little training in heritage education [19], which underlines the importance of continuing to carry out and evaluate didactic activities that mitigate this deficiency. Therefore, this study aims not only to promote the teaching of heritage but also to provide methodological strategies that favor its learning.

Non-probabilistic convenience sampling was used to select the participants, taking study in the area of Knowledge of the Physical, Social and Cultural Environment as a discriminant criterion. In addition, the University Degree in Primary Education was considered since educational work with heritage at this stage is essential to promote habits of care, respect and involvement in the conservation of heritage [80,81].

The margin of error was 8.70%, with a confidence level of 95%, considering the statistics of undergraduate students enrolled in the previously mentioned university and degree program in the academic year 2024–2025, which included a total of 275 students [82].

2.2. Procedure: Didactic Intervention

The present work is based on the design, implementation and evaluation of a didactic intervention, based on the application of the role-playing strategy to address intangible heritage. Specifically, this intervention seeks to enhance the value of the intangible heritage associated with the dehesa, a Mediterranean agrosilvopastoral system that has an exceptional landscape and a high heritage value [83,84,85,86]. These qualities have led to its consideration as a cultural landscape [83].

In addition to the vestiges of tangible heritage still preserved, also called monuments of agriculture, it has a characteristic intangible heritage associated with the traditional trades that still take place in it (shepherds, cork pullers, charcoal burners…) and also with ancestral elaboration techniques, craft processes, customs and gastronomic elaborations. Some of them, as in the case of transhumance, are recognized in the Representative List of Intangible Heritage by UNESCO [87] and in the Royal Decree 385/2017, of April 8 2017, declaring transhumance as a Representative Manifestation of Intangible Cultural Heritage [88].

The dehesa is an agrosystem that treasures knowledge and traditions that have been passed down through many generations but which are currently at serious risk of disappearing. The lack of generational replacement to continue traditional trades, the physical demands of field work and the mechanization of agricultural tasks are causing the loss of ancestral knowledge and practices that are part of the identity of the rural communities linked to this landscape [86]. In view of the progressive disappearance of this intangible legacy, it is necessary to promote training at the university level, developing activities that focus on heritage [89].

To this end, a role-playing activity was developed, in which different trades, ancestral knowledge, traditions, customs, celebrations, recreational activities or problems associated with the dehesa are presented. For this purpose, five different themes were proposed for interpretation by groups of five people (

Table 1. Themes for role-playing.

Subject	Situation	Roles to Represent
Cattle breeders of the Mesta	The students should embody the ancient transhumant herdsmen who were part of the Honored Council of the Mesta. They should show how they organized the movement of herds through the royal cattle trails and the important role that grazing had in the dehesa. They should address issues such as conflicts with farmers over land use, the value of wool and traditional clothing or that worn by shepherds, as an example of vernacularism.	Cattle breeders of the Mesta agriculture
Cork pullers	The students must play the role of cork extractors, who work in the farming of cork oak trees in the dehesa. This group can explain the extraction process, the traditional knowledge to avoid damaging the tree or the evolution of the tools used. They can also discuss the economic impact of this activity and the importance of cork in sustainable products.	Cork pullers
Charcoal burners	The students must play charcoal makers, workers who traditionally dedicated themselves to the production of charcoal from the wood of holm oaks and other trees of the dehesa. This group can show the construction process used by traditional charcoal makers and how it has evolved or what its uses are.	Charcoal burners
Transformation of the dehesa for rural tourism	This should show how the dehesa has evolved in recent times, becoming not only a productive space but also a recreational and touristic one. Students should address the challenges of sustainability and the balance between tourism exploitation and conservation.	Owners of dehesa farms that offer agritourism experiences and tourism entrepreneurs offering recreational activities: hiking, astro-tourism, bird watching…
Landownership and unequal relations	This theme is intended to address the concept of latifundismo and the unequal relationships that often existed between landowners and day laborers. The conditions in which peasant families lived, the inequality between genders or the lack of access to education can be addressed.	Landowners and day laborers

). The duration of each intervention was 10–15 min in each group.

The aim was to address the intangible heritage associated with the dehesa through the representation of traditional trades, as well as relevant social problems that have taken place in the students’ immediate environment.

The activity was structured in three stages (before, during and after), following the recommendations of Grande and Abella [53] (

Table 2. Phases of didactic intervention.

Stage	Phases	Development
Before the intervention	Explanation of the dehesa and its heritage	Previous explanation about the dehesa as a cultural landscape and its associated heritage. Reading of and reflection on two texts.
	Explanation of the didactic strategy	Explanation of different items: the methodology, the objectives of the activity, the evaluation rubric and the themes and roles to be interpreted.
	Establishment of groups and assignment of roles and topics	Distribution of students into different work groups, who must research their role and the topic to be interpreted.
During the intervention	Development of role-playing
	Co-evaluation	Application of the evaluation rubric and reflection on relevant aspects of each group.
After the procedure	Joint reflection	Reflection and sharing in large group.

). A total of eight sessions were held, each lasting two hours.

The first stage took place over five sessions and was aimed at introducing the subject of study and detecting the students’ level of prior knowledge. During the first two sessions, the heritage value of the dehesa was addressed using various dynamics, such as the viewing of videos on traditional trades (many of them made by the teacher himself), the analysis of and reflection on scientific articles and the explanation of the multifunctional nature of the dehesa. The possibilities of tourism in the revitalization of the intangible heritage of the dehesa were also explored, with the aim of making the students aware of the recreational and leisure character that this landscape currently possesses.

In the third session, the role-playing methodology was presented. Its characteristics and the purpose of the activity were explained, the objectives were established, the evaluation rubric was presented and the themes and roles that the students had to pre-play were explained. The evaluation rubric can be found in Appendix A.

During the fourth and fifth sessions, the topics were randomly distributed to each of the groups. The groups themselves chose their role within each theme. This phase focused especially on the students’ autonomous research work, searching for and selecting information from sources suggested by the teacher. In addition, the teacher guided the groups, resolving doubts and ensuring that the preparation was adequate for the subsequent performances.

The second stage took place over two sessions. During these sessions, all the performances took place. After each group’s intervention, a co-evaluation was carried out by the rest of the classmates, using the rubric previously presented. This process included a joint reflection in which the positive aspects observed in each intervention were discussed, as well as possible areas for improvement.

Finally, the last stage consisted of a single session. It consisted of a joint reflection that addressed questions aimed at finding out both the pupils’ new learning in relation to the meadow and traditional trades and their appreciation and degree of satisfaction with this methodological strategy.

After the completion of all the sessions, 87 semi-structured interviews were conducted with university students willing to participate. The purpose of this instrument was to evaluate the effectiveness of the role-playing strategy applied in the didactic intervention and to contribute to its validation as a strategy to promote heritage education. To this end, the interview addressed three main axes in relation to the didactic strategy: advantages, limitations and proposals for improvement.

2.3. Instruments and Techniques

The methodological design adopted in this study corresponds to a qualitative approach, aimed at describing and understanding a reality from an interpretative approach [90]. The choice of interviews as the only data collection instrument is based on the ability of this instrument to capture the perspectives and desires of the participants in greater depth. In addition, previous studies on this topic [41] have shown that, in interviews, participants reconsider the answers given in questionnaires, which tend to generate more superficial and less reflective responses.

The qualitative analyses were carried out by means of inductive content analysis [91]. This was conducted by coding relevant segments of information into analyzable units [92]. Through this process, dissimilar categories and subcategories were generated, defined by common characteristics. Specifically, four major categories were established: benefits of the strategy for heritage education, educational benefits of the strategy, limitations and proposals. In addition, fifty codes were identified. For the interpretation of the results, it is important to keep in mind that each of the codes can be related to one or more categories at the same time.

In the coding and analysis process, the qualitative analysis software Atlas.ti v.25 was used, with the aim of achieving greater systematicity and rigor. This tool made it possible to perform cooccurrence analyses, which show the relationship and codependence between the different codes generated [93]. These were represented graphically by means of Sankey diagrams, resulting from cross-tabulation between codes [94]. These diagrams facilitate the visual interpretation of the results. In these diagrams, the strongest interdependent relationships are reflected by thicker lines.

Semantic analysis was also applied, systematized into word clouds which show the most representative terms used by the students in the interviews. In this process, those terms that were repeated at least twenty-five times were retrieved. Prepositions and other terms were excluded because they do not have any meaning relevant to the topic in question, and concepts that are synonyms or refer to the same reality (e.g., learning) were merged.

3. Results

The content analysis reflects the potential of the role-playing strategy to address heritage education. More specifically, the five examples of situations represented and the various roles associated with them have allowed students to investigate, question, argue and internalize environmental, historical, social and cultural aspects related to issues such as the depreciation of intangible heritage, the value of the dehesa as a cultural landscape, the visibility of minority groups or the opportunities of tourism as a strategy for the revitalization of traditions associated with the rural environment, among other elements.

The code co-occurrence analysis reflects numerous interdependence relationships with the set of categories. A Sankey diagram showing the set of co-occurrence relationships is displayed in Appendix B. In total, 393 interdependence relationships are identified. Of these, 104 refer to the benefits of role-playing for heritage education, 130 to educational benefits, 66 to constraints and 93 to proposals (

Table 3. Code co-occurrence.

	Heritage Education Benefits	Benefits of Method	Limitations	Proposals	TOTAL
Understanding of issues/social and historical consciousness	70	22	0	0	92
Motivation	8	68	0	0	76
Cooperation	4	49	0	0	53
Training in unknown heritage	21	11	8	6	46
Experiential learning	7	39	0	0	46
Development time	0	0	30	12	42
Close environment and meaningful learning	27	10	0	2	39
Traditional trades	38	0	0	0	38
Empathy	10	27	0	0	37
Research	3	31	0	2	36
Visibility of minority groups	32	0	0	0	32
Introverted students	0	0	28	0	28
Devaluation of intangible heritage	27	0	0	0	27
Subsequent reflection/feedback	5	2	1	18	26
Preliminary work in several sessions	0	0	8	17	25
Equal participation	1	2	10	11	24
Search for solutions and decision making	12	11	0	0	23
Stage preparation and characterization	0	0	6	17	23
Communication skills	3	17	0	0	20
Dehesa as a cultural landscape	18	1	0	0	19
Conservation and social change involvement	14	4	0	0	18
Encourage interpretive activities	0	0	4	13	17
Guided preparation: role cards	0	0	0	17	17
Learning ancestral techniques and customs	15	0	0	0	15
Critical thinking	7	7	0	0	14
Adapt activity according to confidence levels	0	0	0	11	11
Establish clear objectives	0	0	0	11	11
Incorporate technology	0	0	0	11	11
Loss of cultural identity	10	0	0	0	10
Large spaces	0	0	3	6	9
Environmental education	6	2	0	0	8
Environment of trust	0	2	1	4	7
Self-confidence	0	7	0	0	7
Evaluation rubrics	0	0	0	7	7
Tourism in the revitalization of the dehesa	4	1	0	0	5
Interdisciplinarity and applicability	1	4	0	0	5
Present–past connection	3	1	0	0	4
Diversity of roles	0	0	0	4	4
Small groups	0	0	1	3	4
Self-employment	0	4	0	0	4
Integration of theory and practice	1	2	0	0	3
Co-evaluation	0	1	0	2	3
Introductory dynamics	0	0	0	3	3
Viewer tokens	0	0	0	1	1
Record performances for analysis	0	0	0	1	1
Working with different types of heritage	0	0	0	1	1
TOTAL	104	130	66	93	393

).

The analyses reveal the great educational potential of the role-playing strategy, in general and specifically for the teaching of heritage. Among the main educational advantages identified are that this strategy favors increased motivation, cooperative work, experiential learning, empathy and research. Likewise, although to a lesser extent, other advantages of this strategy were also identified, such as the development of communication skills, its impact on self-confidence, the interdisciplinary nature of this strategy, its potential to favor autonomous work and its capacity to integrate theory and practice (Figure 1).

The main advantage in educational terms refers to the increase in motivation by fostering an innovative, participatory and dynamic learning environment. The implementation of activities based on the principles of active methodologies allowed for a break from the traditional academic routine experienced by students, proving to be effective in capturing their attention and increasing their interest and, consequently, increasing their motivation.

In addition, students have recognized that this practice has favored cooperation among group members, promoting a collaborative work environment where equal participation, the exchange of ideas and the joint resolution of the conflicts raised were essential. They also identify the suitability of this strategy to promote experiential learning. This didactic strategy not only demands previous research by the students to learn about the role, character or situation assigned to them but also requires them to interpret this in first person, which intensifies the learning of the contents worked on. This combined work of research and action transforms students into active protagonists of their own learning process.

Finally, role-playing has proven to be effective in enhancing emotional skills such as empathy. By putting themselves in someone else’s shoes, students felt greater involvement, which allowed them to understand different realities in a deeper and more authentic way. Therefore, this strategy not only enhances academic learning but also contributes to personal development.

There are several testimonies justifying these educational benefits: “This activity kept me motivated and involved, as it is much more interesting to be part of the story than just listening to it” (quote 28); “Role-playing is an activity that makes teaching and learning different from what it normally is, making classes more enjoyable and dynamic. In addition, students with this methodology have to be able to understand how the characters they play were thinking” (quote 126); “I think that the greatest benefit is the motivation that the students have because they are doing something that is not within what is considered normal when teaching, in this way we make the students learn better by making them internalize the contents better” (quote 128); “This activity allows us to put ourselves in other people’s shoes and put ourselves in the shoes of their work, this makes us have a deeper understanding of their challenges and perspectives” (quote 218); and “Moreover, through it we work in teams and listen to others, including problem solving, which we have to deal with through creativity” (quote 219).

In the field of heritage education, role-playing has demonstrated numerous advantages, especially its impact on strengthening social and historical awareness (Figure 2). Through this strategy, students have gained a deeper understanding of the social and cultural issues that affect their immediate reality. These include the disappearance situation faced by traditional trades or the invisibility of minority groups, often excluded from school curricula, such as peasants or rural workers. In addition, it promotes key skills for Social Science learning such as decision making and critical and reflective thinking and fosters meaningful connections between the past and the present.

Role-playing is an effective tool for learning about intangible heritage. The representation of traditional trades associated with the dehesa has favored greater student awareness of the heritage value of trades, techniques and ancestral knowledge. It has allowed students to reflect on and become aware of the loss of cultural identity caused by the deterioration or loss of this intangible legacy (Figure 2).

In addition, it has also helped students to recognize the multifunctional nature of the dehesa, whose value transcends its productive capacity. This practice has made its environmental and ecosystemic functions visible, in addition to its wide repertoire of associated intangibles, which give it an exceptional ethnographic and cultural value. In addition, it has also allowed students to reflect on its recreational functions, such as the use of the dehesa to promote rural tourism and thus revitalize traditional trades. In this context, students have been able to get involved in the search for solutions to preserve the intangible heritage of the dehesa.

Among the students’ statements that highlight the benefits of role-playing for heritage education, the following stand out: “Through this activity we can become socially aware of certain issues such as: the loss of intangible heritage, existing inequalities and thus make a series of proposals or solutions for how to address these” (quote 223); “It made me appreciate traditional trades more and understand their importance in our history and culture. In addition, I learned about how we take care of our environment, as in the case of the dehesa, and why it is important to preserve it” (quote 233); “Role-playing helps to raise awareness about issues such as the loss of intangible heritage, as they can take on the roles of people fighting to preserve traditions in the face of modernization. It also helps to address issues of social or economic inequality through the re-presentation of people who experience these issues, generating empathy and reflection” (quote 250); and “It teaches about issues close to home, such as the loss of intangible heritage or inequality, fostering empathy, critical thinking and social awareness. It helps students to analyze complex situations, make decisions and develop problem-solving skills, promoting social change” (quote 259).

Among the difficulties in applying this strategy, they identify the time needed to develop the activity, which, in the students’ opinion, should be longer than 10–15 min. Likewise, they also recognize the feeling of insecurity that introverted students may experience, which may limit their participation and increase their aversion to this type of strategy (Figure 3).

In addition, the students recognize that they have little training in heritage education and not enough experience in interpretive activities, which is an obstacle for the correct development of this dynamic. Other limitations for applying role-playing in the classroom refer to the preparation required for this activity, in terms of time, space and material resources. On the one hand, it requires investing several sessions prior to the performance to investigate and obtain sufficient knowledge about the roles and the historical or social context to be able to carry it out. On the other hand, it requires sufficiently large space and the use of material resources to set the stage and characterize the characters.

These limitations are reflected in statements such as “You need a lot of knowledge about the topic to make the dialogues go more smoothly’ (quote 45); “Preparing a role-play involves a lot of work beforehand to gather information which can take a long period of time” (quote 57); “Many learners may be introverted and working on this with learners is also time-consuming” (quote 58); “Some people may feel self-conscious or unwilling to perform in front of others, which can limit their engagement and learning” (quote 83); “I would mainly highlight aspects such as lack of experience, as we are not used to doing activities of this kind” (quote 210); and “Role-playing activities require a lot of time to plan, implement and discuss” (quote 285).

Among the proposals for implementing this strategy in the classroom, the need to include a session or a period of time for joint reflection in which students can share their experiences and difficulties stands out. This moment favors obtaining feedback from both the teacher and the rest of the classmates, thus enriching the collaborative learning process (Figure 4).

Other proposals maintain a close correlation with the limitations, such as the need to promote previous work in several sessions to obtain adequate knowledge to represent the subject matter in an effective way. Likewise, the importance of preparing and setting the stage, as well as the characterization of the characters, to guarantee an immersive experience is also emphasized.

They also emphasize the importance of promoting equal participation among group members. To this end, they point out the need to promote the development of interpretative activities on a more constant basis so that an atmosphere of trust is generated among the class. They also recommend establishing small groups, carrying out guided preparation in which character cards are designed and defining in detail the roles to be played or adapting them according to the confidence levels of the students.

Finally, other proposals for developing role-playing refer to the need to establish clear and precise objectives so that students understand the purpose of the practice. They also suggest designing diverse and varied roles, using technological tools to enrich the setting (sounds, videos, images…), handing out cards or scripts to the spectators to facilitate the understanding of what is being represented or recording the representations, so as to favor subsequent analysis and reflection on them.

Some ideas that summarize these proposals are the following: “I think that we should carry out this type of activities more often so that we can develop better” (quote 91); “Use of support tools: incorporate materials, role cards or guides to help participants understand their roles” (quote 97); “Preparation with clear guidelines to understand the roles” (quote 145); “Create an inclusive, trusting and supportive environment, where everyone feels comfortable participating” (quote 146); “Include a structured reflection at the end to deepen the learning and connect the experience with the educational objectives” (quote 147); “Have good preparation beforehand and do a lot of research to be able to convey the information correctly” (citation 225); “Make sure the activity is accessible to people with different needs and abilities” (citation 226); “Prepare learners thoroughly, create a safe environment for participation and ensure adequate time for participation” (citation 261); and “Use digital tools such as virtual simulations or recordings to enrich the experience” (citation 256).

Regarding semantic analysis, a wide representation of terms such as “teaching”, “learning”, “working”, “improving”, “students”, “heritage”, “immaterial”, “didactic”, “understanding”, “trade”, “traditional”, “dehesa” or “methodology” is identified (Figure 5). These concepts reaffirm that the students identify role-playing as a didactic strategy to improve teaching and learning processes about heritage.

In addition, there is a wide presence of concepts such as “problem”, “inequality”, “loss” or “social”, which refer to the capacity of this strategy to work on social problems in the classroom, such as the progressive loss faced by traditional trades or the relations of inequality, manifested in the low visibility of the minority social classes associated with the rural way of life. Other terms such as “group”, “favorable”, “participation”, “motivation”, “cooperation”, “research” or “dynamic” are related to the educational benefits of role-playing, among which are its advantages in promoting experiential learning, group work, research, participation or motivation among students.

4. Discussion

The preservation of intangible cultural heritage is essential to maintain a sense of belonging, whether individual or collective, which is not only associated with the historical memory of a society but also with social cohesion, uniting individuals under common values and a sense of belonging [95]. Traditions, customs, ways of life, knowledge and ancestral wisdom are examples of this living heritage. Knowledge of them is the first step towards respecting them and becoming involved in their preservation [18]. And this, precisely, is the main purpose of the didactic intervention presented in this study: the knowledge of the intangible legacy closest to university students.

This claim, moreover, becomes necessary, especially when recent studies show that in the educational field there is a clear tendency to address material heritage, associated with the artistic and monumental field, while there is a notable neglect of intangible assets [16,17,18]. In addition, another of the major limitations in heritage teaching is the tendency of teachers to continue to give master classes, in which students play a passive role [95]. This predominant approach limits the students’ ability to participate in the learning process in an active and conscious way [96].

Consequently, the literature points out the urgency to innovate in the teaching of Social Sciences, which requires changes in the curriculum and in teacher training, in line with the need to promote active, reflective practices aimed at training teachers who are critical and committed to their social reality [5,33,97,98]. In line with these claims, the study results demonstrate the pedagogical advantages of using role-playing as a suitable active methodological strategy for the teaching and learning of intangible heritage.

One advantage is the ability of this strategy to increase student motivation [38,44] by allowing students to learn in a novel and totally experiential way [46,99]. Strategies that give a central role to the learner have a positive impact on extrinsic motivation while having the potential to generate interest and appreciation for topics that might initially be abstract or unfamiliar [100]. At the same time, these active practices contribute to counteracting the eminently theoretical character with which Social Sciences are still associated and the consequent disinterest of students in these subjects [101,102].

In addition, the ability of this strategy to promote cooperation within a participatory dynamic is also noted [39,44]. Role-playing fulfills the purposes of collaborative learning, which differentiate it from mere group work [103,104]: positive interdependence, which defines that success is only achieved if all group members participate in its attainment; face-to-face interaction, which implies sharing the experience directly among all components; and personal responsibility and valuation, which implies the commitment of all to the common objectives and a process of self-analysis, developed in the reflection phase.

Another advantage of this method is that it favors the development of research skills in students, as highlighted by other studies [38,39,43]. Role-playing requires important previous research work that involves the search for, selection of and analysis of information to understand in a deeper way the historical, social and cultural context, as well as the specific characteristics of the characters to be represented. This initial phase, in addition to reinforcing key competencies such as the critical and reflective analysis of information, promotes the autonomous work of students [39].

It is also worth noting the ability of this strategy to develop empathy [38,53], an essential value for understanding and reflecting on the situations and issues experienced by other social groups. Through this practice, students can better understand the emotions of the characters portrayed, fostering a deeper understanding of the historical, social or cultural circumstances that have influenced them. Therefore, role-playing influences not only academic development but also emotional development, allowing students to adopt a more tolerant and sensitive approach to other realities.

Moreover, empathy is an essential value in the generation of heritage bonds [41]. In this case, playing peasants and rural workers, groups often made invisible in Social Science contents [5], has allowed students to become aware of, understand, appreciate and value the reality faced by some of the people who still carry out traditional trades, such as cork pullers, charcoal burners or transhumant shepherds. Specifically, through role-playing, the students have been able to acquire a greater awareness of the current danger of disappearance experienced by these trades and ancestral knowledge, as well as the importance that these traditions have in their own identity.

In this specific field of heritage education, it has been shown that the role-playing strategy provides numerous benefits for dealing with intangible heritage (H₁), thus fulfilling the first hypothesis. Among them, it is worth highlighting the potential of this strategy to promote social and historical awareness by enabling the students to represent problems or conflicts faced by different social groups.

Under this premise, they have addressed relevant social problems that affect their immediate reality. Among them is the situation of vulnerability of the intangible legacy associated with the dehesa, which is currently on the verge of extinction [105,106]. Likewise, the invisibility of the most disadvantaged social classes has also been addressed [5], represented through farm workers and day laborers, who have been represented in order to make visible their historical and cultural importance, as well as the importance of the environmental functions they perform or the difficulties they face.

Both approaches have allowed students to deeply understand these issues, making them visible and stimulating attitudes of appreciation and commitment to the conservation of intangible heritage and social justification. In addition, since these are problems that take place directly in their environment, students can acquire significant learning [39,43,48,56,71], in addition to adopting an attitude of social commitment [7,78]. These social problems or conflicts, their interpretation and their inclusion in the classroom to think about a different future are a method for the education of a new critical and committed citizenship [26].

Moreover, it is through these problems that essential skills such as the development of critical thinking and decision making are stimulated [30,59,107]. Through role-playing, participants have faced dilemmas or complex situations that require them to deeply analyze information, evaluate alternatives and reflect on the ethical, social or cultural implications of making certain decisions.

However, role-playing also has some drawbacks. Among them is anxiety among the more introverted students [38], a fact that can lead to the rejection of this type of practice or to unequal participation among group members. In addition, some of the trainee teachers point out that the time used in the presentations, which in this case ranged between 10 and 15 min, is insufficient to deal with the contents in depth. They also recognize the long preparation time required for this type of practice [57], which is incompatible with the attachment to traditional teaching that teachers still experience and which makes them strictly adhere to the contents set out in the school manual [108].

However, perhaps one of the most important concerns is related to the scarce training that students state they have in relation to heritage education (H₂), which implies approving the second of the hypotheses [81,109]. This may hinder their ability to efficiently deal with heritage-related content and move the representations away from their main objective.

Likewise, the lack of previous participation in interpretive activities is also a major obstacle [38]. The lack of previous experience in these dynamics may increase insecurity among students. A fact that reaffirms this issue is that there is still very little research on the application of this strategy in initial teacher training [46,60] and even less in relation to heritage teaching [41].

Several studies argue that precisely the scarcity of research on role-playing makes it difficult to establish common guidelines to know how to apply it in the classroom [46,53,60]. To respond to this situation, this study presents some guidelines to promote and optimize the implementation of role-playing in the classroom.

As general recommendations, it is important to communicate to students the objective and purpose of the activity, as well as to design diverse and varied roles, work in small groups, have sufficiently large spaces for the implementation of the activity and emphasize the importance of preparing environmental and decorative elements to favor immersion [53].

Another key aspect is prior preparation. Before conducting the activity, it is recommended to familiarize the class with interpretative dynamics that favor the progressive disinhibition of students and help students feel more comfortable and confident (H₃), which implies accepting the third and last of the hypotheses. Likewise, although autonomous research work is an important element of role-playing, it is necessary to approach the subject matter under study in several previous sessions to ensure that the students have a sufficient knowledge base. At this point, it is important to focus on heritage education. To this end, offering guided preparation is particularly useful, including providing character cards that clearly define the characteristics of the roles to be played.

Other aspects should also be taken into account during implementation. At this point, the use of technological tools, such as images or sounds, can be favorable to enhance immersion in the activity. Providing information sheets to the spectators can facilitate the follow-up of the activity and improve understanding. Finally, during the activity, it is recommended to record the sessions so that subsequent analysis and reflection dynamics can be developed.

Once the role-playing activity is over, it is essential to set aside time for joint reflection, where teachers and students can give each other feedback. This time is essential to enrich the learning processes [110]. Furthermore, this time can be used to reflect on and discuss the social, cultural, educational or environmental implications of the topics worked on, promoting their critical analysis. Finally, it is recommended that specific rubrics be designed to promote the co-evaluation and self-evaluation of each of the groups.

In addition to providing guidelines for the implementation of role-playing, this study makes new contributions to the literature. The results not only refer to the already recognized benefits of role-playing in the field of education (increased motivation, promotion of cooperative and experiential learning, development of empathy, promotion of research and critical thinking) but also make non-traditional and specific contributions to the field of heritage education.

Firstly, the potential of role-playing to facilitate the understanding of relevant social problems close to the students’ reality is recognized. This pedagogical strategy is particularly useful for promoting reflection on the problems facing intangible heritage, such as the gradual disappearance of certain trades and traditions that form part of this intangible legacy. It also makes it possible to make visible the customs and ways of life of minority and invisible groups, such as peasants and people engaged in agricultural work, a challenge especially demanded by the didactics of Social Sciences, in its objectives of promoting democratic citizenship [5].

Secondly, new applications of role-playing have been identified to facilitate the understanding of the notion of cultural landscape, as in the case of the dehesa. By representing different characters and situations, students are able to identify much more easily the heritage elements that make up this type of landscape and that are not perceived at first glance, such as ancestral knowledge or ways of life that largely determine the identity of many rural populations.

Finally, this study provides novel findings in relation to the possibilities of role-playing to reflect on the potential of tourism as a means to revitalize intangible heritage. This particular finding highlights the capacity of role-playing not only to facilitate heritage education but also to involve students in the search for solutions to contribute to heritage conservation.

This research can be considered to design educational programs that contemplate role-playing for teaching and learning about intangible heritage in teacher training, given its recognized pedagogical benefits. Including this methodological strategy allows for social problems close to the students’ reality to be addressed while at the same time contributing to training reflective teachers, capable of analyzing and questioning various heritage manifestations.

Furthermore, role-playing can help to transform the teaching of heritage, transforming the contents into active, meaningful and motivating experiences. In this way, topics such as intangible heritage, which lack sufficient visibility in educational programs, become the focus of participatory dynamics that encourage student participation and interest.

It is important to understand that it is necessary to adapt role-playing to different educational contexts, since school environments vary in terms of resources, student diversity and curricular objectives. Therefore, it is recommended to apply this methodological strategy in a flexible way, without relying exclusively on specific technologies or material resources. In schools where material resources are scarce, recycled or accessible materials can be used for the setting of the stage and characterization of the characters. In addition, it is essential to consider student diversity, working with other specialist teachers to assign roles that may be more relevant to individual students, especially those with specific needs. Role-playing should also be adapted to the prior knowledge and specific objectives of each course.

An essential aspect is to focus on teacher training in the management of role-playing activities so that the full benefits of this methodology can be realized. To this end, teachers must receive continuous training on how to apply these innovative strategies, enabling them to develop up-to-date teaching practices, as well as to improve the learning experience of students.

Despite the positive results, this study has some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. First, the small sample size is a significant limitation, as it prevents generalization to wider educational contexts. The findings are limited to the specific characteristics of the participating students, which limits their applicability to other groups with different educational, cultural or demographic profiles. Another limitation is the lack of longitudinal follow-up over time, which prevents us from assessing the long-term effects of role-playing on the valuation of intangible heritage. This study focuses on the immediate effects of role-playing on the valuation of intangible heritage over a very specific period of time. In addition, more specific variables, which could provide relevant data for this study, such as the impact of the application of digital tools in role-playing, have not been evaluated.

Future research should use a larger sample size or consider students from different universities in order to obtain a more comprehensive view of the application of role-playing in different educational contexts. In addition, longitudinal studies should also be undertaken to assess the influence of this type of methodological strategy on heritage learning. Future work could consider how digital tools can enrich learning experiences, as they can provide new forms of interaction, ambience and assessment. In addition, the teachers’ perspectives could also be included in the interviews, which would help to enrich the analyses by incorporating their perceptions of their predisposition to apply role-playing or their experience with this method. Integrating both the educators’ and the learners’ perspectives would enrich the results on the impact of this method.

5. Conclusions

The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:

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First, numerous pedagogical benefits of the role-playing strategy are identified, which influences the improvement in teaching–learning processes. Among its main contributions are the increase in motivation, support for cooperation, the development of research skills and the promotion of experiential learning. These benefits contribute to transforming teaching, in line with the requirements of the current educational system. In addition, its interdisciplinary nature allows its implementation in any field of knowledge, optimizing educational processes in various subjects.

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Secondly, there are important benefits for heritage education. Particularly noteworthy is the increase in the social and historical awareness of the teachers in training, who have gained a deeper understanding of the social problems occurring in their immediate environment. By representing certain situations in first person, the students have increased their awareness of and sensitivity to the situation of fragility experienced by the intangible heritage linked to the dehesa or the invisibility of certain minority groups, such as peasants or workers linked to agricultural work. These groups are often excluded from Social Sciences curricula. These findings fulfil the main objective of this study: to explore the educational benefits of role-playing, in particular for the appreciation and learning of intangible heritage (O₁).

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Thirdly, the influence of role-playing in the development of certain educational competencies, which are essential for the integral formation of students, can be deduced. Critical and reflective thinking and decision making are especially strengthened through this strategy, since it requires students to investigate, question information, analyze complex situations, evaluate different alternatives and consider the ethical, social, cultural or environmental implications of their decisions. These skills contribute to training teachers capable of asking questions.

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Fourthly, some difficulties are identified that should be considered when approaching this strategy. Mainly, it should be considered that this type of practice requires preparation and execution time that allows the contents and objectives to be addressed in sufficient depth. Therefore, good planning is necessary to include this type of practice efficiently.

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In addition, the feeling of insecurity that more introverted students may experience can limit their participation in this type of practice. Therefore, it is necessary to implement this type of interpretive dynamic more frequently, which enhances a climate of safety and comfort within the group and facilitates the involvement of this type of student. The finding of these limitations allows us to answer the second objective, which was to identify the possible limitations of the application of role-playing (O₂).

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Finally, several guidelines are provided to promote and optimize the implementation of role-playing in the classroom (O₃), thus fulfilling the last of the objectives. The proposals include the need to enhance the work after this practice. The time after the intervention is useful for reflecting on the different experiences represented and allows for feedback from both the teacher and the rest of the classmates, thus promoting a joint construction of knowledge.