Reviving Dead Leaf: Understanding Historical Color Terminology Through Reconstruction

Abstract

The terms fillenoert, villemort, feulje mort, and fillemot are obsolete historical color names derived from the French feuille morte (dead leaf), referred to a broad spectrum of brownish, yellowish, greenish, and reddish hues in early modern textile dyeing. This study investigates the visual identity and chromatic range of dead leaf by reconstructing dye recipes from seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European dyeing manuals. Using historically accurate materials and techniques, wool samples were dyed and analyzed through CIELAB color measurements to quantify their hue values. The results reveal that dead leaf does not correspond to a single, fixed color but represents a flexible and metaphorical category, reflecting both the natural variation in dead foliage and the diversity of historical dyeing practices. In early modern Europe, colors were often descriptive, frequently referencing the natural world or objects. These descriptors offered a nuanced vocabulary that extended far beyond today’s basic chromatic terms. Reworking these recipes reveals the complex interplay between chromatic language, material practices, and color perception. Historical color names served not merely as labels but encoded information about dye sources, cultural associations, and socio-economic contexts. Understanding and reviving this terminology deepens our appreciation of early dyeing traditions and bridges past and present conceptions of color.

1. Introduction

Before the color revolution of the nineteenth century, there had been little standardization in color-making. Historical sources show that colors were much more than simple labels; they were closely tied to the materials, dyes and dyeing techniques, and cultural context in which they were used. Many traditional color names referenced the pigment or dye itself (like Ochre Red, blood red, pitch black, or cochineal and madder red) or the geographic origin of the color (like Naples Yellow). As language developed, a growing number of color names emerged to meet the evolving demands of art, industry, and the rapidly expanding world of sales promotion [1,2]. Yet in our everyday language today, particularly when describing garments and textiles, our vocabulary for color remains quite limited. Historical sources such as dyers’ manuscripts and treatises reveal an incredibly rich and imaginative range of color names. Terms that we rarely use in our daily language. By reconstructing its visual identity and integrating scientific measurements (CIELAB values) derived from historical dye recipes such as those found in Conste des Ververs (The Art of Dyeing) (1619–1623) [3], the Haarlem Manuscript (1669–1700) [4], and The whole art of Dyeing (1705) [5], we revive the rich legacy of hues. This showcases the depth of craftsmanship and cultural significance once inherent in the dyeing process. Understanding these terms provides insights into a rich cultural and artisanal heritage, offering a window into a time when color carried both technical and social significance. Names like fustian black and silk black illustrate how terminology was linked to the fabric being dyed and the method used. Both referred to a process that began with a blue base, followed by an immersion in alder bark extract known as alder bark vat with temperature adjustments made to suit the specific fabric, such as fustian. Sources indicate that fustian was not a single, fixed type of fabric, but rather a category with variable compositions. It was usually a linen-cotton blend, but, in some contexts, it could also refer to wool-linen mixtures or lighter woolen draperies [6] (p. 20 and p. 26). The term meekrapzwart (madder black) presents another example, highlighting the use of madder roots to produce a deep black tone layered over a dark blue ground tone. In contrast, bleckzwart, (alderbark black) rooted in the Flemish word blec for alder bark, [7] (p. 18), referred to a more affordable but lower-quality black dye achieved using iron and alder bark [8].

These historical color names do not only reveal the natural dye sources used but also glimpses into the materials and practices of everyday life. While some historical colors can still be imagined, especially when recipe books include preserved samples [9,10,11,12], more often, all that remains is a written recipe accompanied by a color name, leaving us to reconstruct the actual appearance ourselves. This process of reconstructing recipes reveals the nuanced connection between how colors are described and how they are perceived, underscoring the role of chromatic terminology and visual perception. Though each recipe is meant to produce a specific hue, there’s often no clear indication of what that hue should be. Many dye instructions and recipes end with subjective phrases like “repeat until it is good” or “until it is perfect,” offering little concrete guidance. In the end, it is the skill and perception of the dyer that determine the final result, not the written instructions [8]. In what follows, this paper focuses on some particularly evocative term dead leaf.

2. Historical Context

The term dead leaf is significant for its association with a broad spectrum of colors and hues. This chromatic ambiguity makes it a compelling subject for historical color studies. We have been exploring the significance of this color during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in historical recipes for dyeing textiles. The term does not appear to be confined to a specific region, which raises further interest. There are multiple ways to achieve this color or rather, this range of colors, and different names are used to define it. Our investigation aimed to determine whether a specific, consistent method existed for producing dead leaf and how many techniques were used to dye it. To that end, we examined dye recipes from various regions and reconstructed them, beginning in seventeenth century Belgium and extending through the Netherlands, England, and Germany, up to eighteenth-century France.

The following section provides a brief historical overview of the term dead leaf, with particular attention to its terminology, followed by a discussion of the primary historical sources that informed our research. While this study is based on a carefully selected set of historical materials, it is not exhaustive; further research drawing on additional sources and broader regional comparisons would be valuable and is planned for future work.

2.1. Terminology

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the perception of color differed significantly from contemporary understanding. Color was often considered an inherent property of objects themselves, rather than as an experience produced by the eye and brain [1]. This becomes particularly evident in the case of dead leaf. The color term, also recorded in various spellings such as fillenoert, feuille mort, foellemoort, feulje mort, vilemort, fillemotte, philamot, and others, originates from the French feuillemorte, meaning dead leaf. This term evoked the warm, muted shades of autumn foliage, encompassing a range of hues from yellow, orange, and green to brown and reddish tones, achieved through various dyeing recipes.

Is the term still in use today? While it is not obsolete, it is rarely used in everyday conversation; one would not typically refer to a feuillemorte dress or jumper. A brief investigation into contemporary usage confirms that the term feuillemorte remains in circulation, particularly within the context of wine bottling. The shade is referenced as ‘la bouteille française par excellence’ and is commonly associated with the bottling of specific French wines [13]. This suggests that feuillemorte persists not only as a historical color term but also as a specialized descriptor in modern oenological practice.

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary describes feuillemorte as “a brownish-orange shade deeper and slightly redder than leather, yellower and deeper than spice, and yellower and deeper than gold pheasant”. It is also referred to by several other names, including autumn leaf, dead leaf, foliage brown, leather lake, oakleaf brown, philamot, or withered leaf, a rather confusing set of descriptors to current day readers [14]. According to A Dictionary of Color from 1950, autumn leaf is a color term described as one of those thoughtless and meaningless names that could apply to a wide range of colors. It originally referred to the bright hues of autumn foliage before the leaves fell. The English terms dead leaf and withered leaf correspond to the French feuille morte. The term feuille morte was reportedly in use as early as 1640 and became naturalized in English. It appeared in many variant spellings (e.g., folimort, Fieulamort, philamot, phyliamort, philomot, phyllamort, feulamort, filemot, philimot, and fillemot), the most common being philamort and filemot. The latter is still listed in some French dictionaries as the English equivalent of feuille morte. These versions are essentially phonetic English spellings of the original French term. Although dead leaf and withered leaf were also used, they were largely overshadowed by the popularity of feuille morte for more than two centuries. In fact, available evidence suggests that this was one of the most, if not the most, popular color names in fashion history [2] (p. 157).

De Nie also discusses color terminology, explicitly stating that the meanings of some color names have been lost [6] (p. 229). Regarding feuille-morte or foele-morte, he notes that it is likely a dark orange-brown color and refers to The Whole Art of Dyeing [6] (p. 230).

The study of color inevitably raises questions of perception, which are inherently subjective and culturally determined. As Herman Pleij, [15] and Michel Pastoureau, [16] have extensively demonstrated in their work, color interpretation is shaped by historical, social, and cultural contexts. Individuals perceive and interpret color in highly personal ways, making it difficult to reach a shared understanding or agreement about the precise meaning, significance, or classification of a particular shade. This subjectivity renders the study of historical color terminology especially intriguing, as it provides valuable insights into how people in the past perceived, described, and valued color, often in ways that differ from contemporary understandings.

2.2. Source Materials: Manuscripts and Printed Books

The sources examined range from the early 17th to the 18th century and originate from regions including Brabant (in present-day Belgium), the Netherlands, England, and France. Together, they illustrate the diffusion and regional variation of the color known as dead leaf across early modern Europe.

• Conste des Ververs (1619–1623)

The earliest manuscript consulted in this study is Conste des Ververs (1619–1623), a Flemish dyeing manuscript which originated and is kept in the archives of Leuven (Brabant, Belgium). The manuscript is written by Henricus Coghen Disthensis, a dyer from Diest (Disthensis, indicates to originate from the nearby Brabant town of Diest, near Leuven). [17,18,19]. The manuscript details different recipes for dyeing wool, silk, linen, and feathers, including methods to dye dead leaf involving yellow stockings dyed with diluted black dye or a mix of soot and brazilwood for a reddish tint. The used terminology is fillenoert, foellemoort foeyllemoort fillemoort, and fillemoert: corrupt words for fawn, the French feuille morte [17]. The recipe for fillenoert follows a two-step dyeing method. The wool is first dyed yellow with weld, and ashes and potash are added. In the second step the wool is dyed in a logwood bath. Two variations are noted. In both cases, logwood is used, either in combination with the mordant zinc sulphate or iron(II)sulphate. Both variations have been reconstructed and published by the author [20].

• Een cleyn verff-boecxken (1638)

During the seventeenth century diverse collection of dye recipes were published, including Een cleyn verff-boecxken, Inhoudende seer constighe saeyet verwen/nut en profytelijck voor breyders en oock voor andere persoonen/die haer dit werck mede willen bemoeyen, which is a small dye book, containing highly artistic worsted dyeing/useful and propitious for preparers (dyers) and also for other persons/who want to get involved in this work (1638). This small dyer’s manual, with a collection of twenty-four recipes to dye textiles, is printed in Leeuwarden in Friesland (The Netherlands) [21]. The manual is kept in the archives of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. The author is Gerbrandum Nicolai, who called himself ‘Ludimagistrum in pago Wonswerdt’ or schoolteacher, in the Fries Village Wanswert, a village above Leeuwarde. Gerbrandum Nicolai did not call himself a dyer, but he was aware how color could be prepared [22] (p. 215).

• De Wetenschap en [de] Manieren om alderhande Couleuren van Saij of Saijetten te Verwen (1633–after 1687)

Another manuscript containing dye recipes is attributed to Jacoba van Veen, a Dutch writer and amateur artist from an artistic family based in The Hague. This document is unique in that it reflects an interest in dyeing not merely as a craft, but as a form of artistic engagement and leisure activity. The manuscript was titled ‘De Wetenschap en[de] Manieren om alderhande Couleuren van Saij of Saijetten te Verwen’ or The science and ways to dye all kinds of colors on worsted (1633–after 1687) [23]. The document is a compilation of art-technical recipes and instructions for making dyes and pigments, doll-making, and a few domestic, medical, and cosmetic preparations. One chapter is addressed to women and provided instructions for making dolls, flowers, and fruits out of wax and plaster. The manuscript has the format of a book, including a title page, chapters, page numbering, and an index. From the text on the title page it can be inferred that it may have been intended for publication or to be read by others. In the final sentence, the author uses the word “her” (haer), suggesting she envisioned a female readership. Approximately one third, around 150 of the total 454 folios, is devoted to textile dyeing. The manuscript by Jacoba van Veen is the only known recipe book authored by a woman, making it a unique historical document [24] (pp. 100–114).

• Haarlem manuscript (1669–1700)

The Haarlem manuscript is an unpublished compilation of written dye and artists’ pigment recipes kept in the Frans Hals Museum in Haarlem. The Museum holds several manuscripts related to the city’s textile industry, including this manuscript titled the following: Receptenboek om allerlei kleuren te verwen, afkomstig uit een Haarlemse ververij (Recipe book for dyeing all kinds of colors, originating from a Haarlem dye workshop). The author is unknown, but, through annotations and quotations, the manuscript can be dated to the second half of the seventeenth century.

The manuscript consists of approximately 900 pages of recipes and is divided into three parts. The recipes are mainly for dyeing textiles, but some are also for artists’ pigments. The first part, comprising 300 pages, is a collection of unordered dye recipes and notes in Dutch, French, and Latin. The second part, about 550 pages long, contains recipes arranged alphabetically by color. The final part, approximately 20 pages, is written in a different hand and contains additional recipes for dyeing textiles [25] (p.176).

• The Whole art of Dyeing (1705) and Ars Tinctoria Experimentalis (1685)

The Whole Art of Dyeing [5] is a manuscript of 356 pages, consisting of two parts. The first part, comprising 138 pages, contains recipes for dyeing silk, wool, and linen. The second part delves even deeper into the dyeing of wool. No German-language sources were consulted for recipes, but it turns out that the first part, which contains the recipes for fillenoert, is a complete translation of the German work, Ars Tinctoria Experimentalis, oder curieuse Wollkommene Endecken der Faerbe-kunst from 1685. This anonymous German manuscript originates from Jena, then the capital of the principality of Saxe-Jena, and now a city in the federal state of Thuringia in central Germany. The book is said to be a collection of recipes from master dyers across Europe. It mentions the best masters in Frankfurt, Nuremberg, Leipzig, Erfurt, Hamburg, Geneva, and the Low Countries [26]. In 1705, an anonymous English translation was published in London, printed by William Pearson. In his preface, the translator gives a warning to the reader that the translation is not entirely accurate: “The Translator desires the Candid peruser would not expect accuracy in Terms of this Art, since he freely owns his Ignorance in it, and was only animated to this undertaking by the great Character some Master Dyers…” [5]. The reconstructions were based on the English translation, with the original German text provided alongside for reference.

• Two French 18^TH century manuscripts, Antoine Janot and Mémoires de teinture

Two French manuscripts were consulted through the work of Dominique Cardon [10,11]. Antoine Janot, an 18th-century master dyer from Languedoc, France, documented wool dyeing recipes in three memoirs, including 67 self-dyed swatches. His work reflects a large-scale, consistently applied dyeing practice. Mémoires de teinture, 1764–1765, a French dyeing manual written by Paul Gout, director of the Manufacture royale in Bize, consist of four different memoirs and is entirely dedicated to recipes for dyeing cloths intended for the “Échelles du Levant.” Each of the 177 recipes is accompanied by a swatch. The recipes to dye feuille morte in both manuscripts are accompanied by a swatch of the color. As with most recipes, the wool is dyed using a two-step method. First, the wool is dyed yellow in a dye bath containing weld and lime, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂). Then, the bruniture process is carried out to achieve the desired shade, using a bath made of madder, gallnuts, and soot.

2.3. Circulation of Recipes

A central question in our research concerns the circulation of knowledge related to textile dyeing. It is well established that recipes were transmitted and adapted over time, a process that is also reflected in the recipes. An exact same recipe is found in three Dutch works. The recipe for dyeing Vilemort (Figure 1) from Een Cleyn verff-boecken is the same in the recipe to dye feuilje mort, in the work of Jacoba Van Veen (Figure 2), except in the last sentence, in which she added the following: naar dat sop duyster of ligt geel is daar naar sal ’t ook ligt of duyster feuillemort sijn or if the sop is dark or light yellow then it shall be light or dark feuillemort. Although the remark could have been copied from an external source, it might also be informed by personal experience, suggesting that Van Veen may have undertaken the preparation of the recipe herself. Throughout the text, the author repeatedly references various figures she identifies as “Meesters” or masters, from whom she directly copied dye recipes. Among these is Nicolai Gerbrandum, described as “a master from Friesland.” This is followed by recipes attributed to “a master in Amsterdam,” and later, additional dyeing methods credited to “yet another dyer”. The recipe Vilemort te verven from Een cleyn verff-boecken also appears in the Haarlem manuscript (1669–1700), with an explicit reference to Nicolai Gerbrandum (Figure 3). The three recipes (Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3) describes a two-step dyeing process beginning with yellow, green, or goose dreck stocking and continues by passing them through a left-over of an incarnate bath. The term “incarnate”, carnation, refers to the human skin, specifically the tint of European (so-called Caucasian) bodies [20] (p. 65).

• Transcription: Vilemort te verwen (Een Cleyn Verff-boecxken, 1638), Feuille mort te verwen from Jacoba Van Veen (1633–1687), Feuilje (Haarlem manuscript 1669–1700), Soo moeten u hoosen eerst geel groen ofte ganse dreck zijn/dan neemt tot een pont werck een menghelen overgebleven incarnaet sop/daer hgy voor incarnaet in gheverwet hebt/dan een menghelen schoon water/ende latet eens opsieden/Dan neemt van t’ vier/ende steeckter u geele ofte groene hoosen daer in/ende arbeyt = se daer wel in/den tijt van een half uyre/dan neemtse uyt hanghtse op te verkoelen/spoeltse uyt in schoon water.
• Translation: You should take yellow-green or goose dreck stockings, then take a pound of work a mixture of remaining incarnate sop where you dyed incarnate in. Then take a mixture of clean water and let it heat to the boil, then take it of the fire, and put your yellow or green stockings in and work them well therein, the time of half an hour, then take them out and hang them to cool, rinse them in clean water. The recipe in the Haarlem Manuscript ends with referring to Gerbrandum Nicolai, Jacoba van Veen’s recipe (Figure 2) ends with: naar dat sop duyster of ligt geel is daar naar sal ’t ook ligt of duyster feuillemort sijn. English translation if the sop is dark or light yellow then it shall be light or dark feuillemort.

Along with this recipe (Figure 3) there are nine other recipes in the Haarlem manuscript explaining how to dye feuilje mort on wool, saaij (the woollen yarn is made from short combed wool) ([6] (p. 19)) ([27] (p. 182)) stockings, and on yarn. Two recipes, presumably referring to Instructions générales pour la teinture des laines et manufactures de laine de toutes couleurs, & pour la culture des drogues ou ingrediens qu’on y employe (1672) [28], describe the process of dyeing feuille-morte using either walnut root or bark to achieve a particular nuance (schouwen in Dutch). They also reference the use of madder, employing the French term garançage. In the recipe from the Haarlem manuscript, soot is also mentioned (schouwing, nuancing); however, its use was discouraged due to its strong and unpleasant odor: “Het roet zoude men konnen verbieden ter oorzaak van syn groote stanck” or one could prohibit soot because of its intense smell. Similar remarks appear in Instructions générales pour la teinture [25] (p. 95).

It became clear that the same recipes appear in different works. While they differ linguistically, they more or less use the same method and ingredients. Most of the recipes are using different dyebaths, starting from yellow, green, and a goose dreck color followed by a bruniture in a black dye bath with walnut husks or ashes or/and an incarnate dye bath. Some recipes even add the third dyeing bath using fernambuc wood (Caesalpinia echinata L.) [5] (p. 76). These recipes are reconstructed and can be found in the following section.

3. Materials and Methods

Technical expertise and artisanal skills are indispensable for understanding, interpreting, and reconstructing historical production techniques [29,30]. As noted in previous sections of this article, many early modern recipes were not authored by the artisans themselves and were frequently transcribed and transmitted over time. Accurately executing such recipes, therefore, requires more than a literal reading; it demands a profound understanding of the material and technical contexts. Even with such knowledge, numerous uncertainties and variables often remain.

Knowledge production in the early modern period was closely intertwined with material practices, physical actions, and objects. Craftsmanship played a crucial role in this process, not only as a source of practical skill, but also as a foundation for scientific and empirical knowledge. In the context of experimental reconstructions, nummerous interpretative decisions must be made, including which materials are to be dyed, how measurements, durations, and temperatures should be understood, and how faithfully these can be translated to contemporary conditions. The ingredients themselves are subject to modern reinterpretation, as the purity of water, the chemical composition of metal salts used as mordants, and the nature of organic components all introduce layers of ambiguity. Performing recipes enables the reconstruction of knowledge that cannot be accessed through the written text alone, in this case the actual appearance of dead leaf color, which only becomes visible through material reconstruction.

For this research five recipes were selected, representing different linguistic regions (Dutch, French, and English). These include the following:

• Om fillenoert te maecken rec. 46 (using iron(II)sulfate [20];
• Rec. 29 (using zinksulfate), [20], both from Conste des ververs (1619–1623);
• Feuilje Mort, from the Haarlem Manuscript (1669–1700);
• A Deep Fillemot;
• Fillemot, from The Whole Art of Dyeing (1705).

The procedure for reconstruction of the two recipes from Conste des ververs (Om fillenoert te maecken, rec. 46 and rec. 29) will not be included in this paper but were published in a previous article [20]. This section focuses on the reconstruction of the remaining three recipes. Two of three recipes are combined recipes, meaning that several procedures, including pre-treatments and after-treatments, such as mordanting baths and second dyeing baths, are required to achieve the final color. Although the three recipes appear to set out clear instructions, many crucial aspects remain unknown. Therefore, we established the following parameters for all the recipes.

3.1. Dying Protocol

All dyeing reconstructions were carried out on identical 100% wool fabric (AW Doeskin, 390 g/m²). Each historical recipe was proportionally scaled to accommodate 30 g of wool, with all dyeing conducted in a total bath volume of 2 L. While historical sources typically provide ingredient quantities in volumetric or weight-based measures (e.g., ounces per pound of material), the reconstructions presented here use standardized ratios based on the weight of fiber (WOF) to ensure reproducibility and comparability across experiments. However, this process is not always straightforward, as the weight of the material to be dyed is not always explicitly specified in the original recipes. In such cases, reference is made to other recipes within the same source that do include the weight of the textile material, allowing for informed estimation. Historical units of measurement were converted into modern metric equivalents: one Ounce in England corresponded to approximately 28.35 g [31] (p. 368), while one pound in Haarlem equaled roughly 494.1 g, [31] (p. 223). The specific quantities for each mordant and ingredient were calculated accordingly and are presented in WOF percentages. All dye materials were sourced from Kremer Pigmente. Although historical manuals often reference the use of natural water sources, such as rainwater or river water, as ideal for dyeing, and The Whole Art of Dyeing even includes a dedicated section titled “What sort of water is best to dye with” [5] (p. 37), demineralized water was used in all reconstructions to ensure consistency and control across experiments. For all procedures, filtered tap water (Aquadem, ion exchange system, Werner) was used to simulate demineralized conditions.

• Pre and after-treatments

Prior to mordanting and dyeing, the wool was washed in demineralized water to ensure even adherence of both the mordants and the dye compounds to the fibers. Washing was carried out using a neutral soap at a temperature of approximately 40–50 °C, followed by thorough rinsing with clean demineralized water.

All three recipes were reconstructed using bran water from The Whole Art of Dyeing (1705), titled A Bran Water for slight Stuffes.

A Bran Water for slight Stuffes

To two Pail-fulls of Water take two Hats full of Wheaten Bran, boil them together for a quarter of an hour, then pour it into a clean Tub, where pour on a Pail of water and throw in a Hand-full of Leven. The French call these Waters Eaux Sures, i.e., Acid or Sharp Waters, and by how much the sourer so much the better they are and fitter to attract the fatness of the Stuffes and dry it clean off, to make them limber,

[5] (p. 36).

The interpretation of this pre-treatment method presents inherent ambiguities, particularly concerning vague measurements (e.g., two hats full of wheaten bran) and the absence of specific parameters such as temperature, pH, or fermentation duration. To approximate the intended outcome, namely, the production of a slightly acidic “sour” bran water solution, we developed a working method based on informed assumptions and contemporary scientific understanding of fermentation processes and historical references, [20], (pp. 65–66; see entries on Bierken and sour water).

In our reconstruction, 15 g of wheat bran were soaked in 500 mL of water and maintained at 80 °C for 15 min to simulate the boiling step described in the historical text. After cooling, the mixture was diluted with an additional 500 mL of water, and 15 g of active sourdough starter were added to initiate fermentation. The solution was monitored until a noticeable sour odor developed and the pH reached 3.5, indicating sufficient acidification. The liquid was then filtered to remove solids, and the resulting sour bran water was used as a preparatory treatment for wool. This protocol represents one of several plausible interpretations and reflects the inherent variability and adaptability of traditional craft practices. The resulting branwater is used in the recipes described in the sections that follow.

• Mordanting includes the following: Both recipes Fillemot and a deep fillemot were mordanted using a recipe from The Whole Art of Dyeing (1705), titled How Stuffes must be Allomed, particularly for Reds.

How Stuffes must be Allomed, particularly for Reds.

For every Pound of Stuff, hang Rain or running-water over the Fire, adding one third part of the Starch or Bran-water; put in two Ounces of Allom, one Ounce of Tartar, when it boils and froths, first skim it, then put in the Stuff, stir it very well about for an Hour, then take it out and rince it.

The quantity of Allom must always be double to that of Tartar; some Dyers reject Red Wine Tartar, and use only White, other esteem the Red better especially for Crimsons and all brownish Red Dyes, and indeed it is very advantageous in all good Stuffes that require a little Red preparatory ground before they are Dyed Black

[5] (pp. 36–37).

To reconstruct the historical mordanting process, a mordant bath was prepared using 500 mL of fermented bran-water and 1500 mL of demineralized water, maintaining the original 1:3 ratio of starch (or bran) water to soft water suggested in the source. The mixture was brought to a gentle boil, at which point alum (12.5% weight of fiber) and cream of tartar (6.25% weight of fiber) were added, preserving the historical 2:1 ratio of alum to tartar. The solution was stirred, until both mordants fully dissolved, then allowed to boil gently. In accordance with the historical instruction to “skim” the bath, any surface froth or impurities were removed (Figure 4). Pre-wetted, scoured wool was then added to the mordant bath and maintained at approximately 100 °C for one hour, with regular stirring to ensure even mordant uptake. After this period, the wool was left to cool slowly in the bath to encourage mordant fixation. Once cooled to room temperature, the wool was removed and rinsed thoroughly in clean demineralized water to eliminate any residual mordant.

For the mordanting process in the recipe from Haarlem manuscript, the following guidelines were applied: 12,5% WOF (Weight of fabric) for alum and 6,2% WOF for cream of tartar [32] (p. 13), which correspond to the same proportions prescribed in the previously cited recipe.

• Rinsing

All samples were thoroughly rinsed with demineralized water until no color was released and subsequently air-dried.

Each dyeing process followed the original steps as closely as possible, with adaptions made only when information was lacking or unclear. The yellow-to-brown two-step method was most common, though one recipe involved a single-bath procedure.

3.2. Reconstructions

• Feuilje mort, Haarlem manuscript (1669–1700)

This recipe describes how to dye Feuilje mort (Figure 5) starting with a mordanting process using alum (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O), cream of tartar (KC₄H₅O₆), and bran water, after that the fabric is dyed yellow with weld (Reseda luteola L.), and the last step is the bruniture with fisetwood (Rhus cotinus L.) and a handful walnut husks (Juglans nigra L.) (Table 1). The term “a big handful” is not quantified. For experimental consistency, it was interpreted as equivalent in weight to the previously used fisetwood. This decision enables meaningful comparison while acknowledging the interpretive nature of working with non-standard historical measurements. A handful of walnut shells was physically measured and found to be approximately equivalent in weight to the amount of fisetwood used in the same recipe. However, this equivalence remains approximate, as the original unit ‘a handful’ is inherently subjective and may have varied depending on the individual dyer and the walnut husks.

• Transcription: Neemt ¼ pond aluijn ende 1/8 pond wijnsteen tot 4 paar/mans caussen/½ semel en ½ soet water een úúr/zieden laten, de wouwe met de coussen tot 4 paar/2 wouw, 1/4 potasch/om feulje mort soo neemt fussethout en laat dat/een half uur kooken, in een zakje, en neemt dan/de zak daer uit. En neemt een groote handvol bolste/ren van groote nooten, en laat de koussen een/half úúr kooken, A.M.N. van der g.
• Translation: Take ¼ pound of alum en 1/8 pound of winestone for four pair men stockings/½ [pound] of bran and ½ sweet water, let it cook for one hour. Weld the stocking to 4 pair 2 [pound] of weld, ¼ [pound] potash. (Figure 6left) To dye feulje mort take fissetwood and let it cook half an hour, in a bag, then take the bag out. Then take a big handful of (walnut)shells from big nuts, and let the stockings cook for half an hour, (Figure 6right) A.M.N. van der g.
• Reconstruction
  Table 1. Work process and ingredients, om feulje mort geel en groen.

  Mordanting	Yellow Dyeing	Bruniture
  Alum 12.5% WOF Cream of tartar 6.2% WOF 1:3 ratio of bran-water to soft water	Weld 100% WOF Potash 12.47% WOF	Fisetwood 10% WOF Walnut husks 10% WOF

  Table 1. Work process and ingredients, om feulje mort geel en groen.

  Mordanting	Yellow Dyeing	Bruniture
  Alum 12.5% WOF Cream of tartar 6.2% WOF 1:3 ratio of bran-water to soft water	Weld 100% WOF Potash 12.47% WOF	Fisetwood 10% WOF Walnut husks 10% WOF

  Figure 6. (left) Yellow-dyed sample with weld and (right) bruniture with fisetwood and walnut husks.

  Figure 6. (left) Yellow-dyed sample with weld and (right) bruniture with fisetwood and walnut husks.

• A deep fillemot Dye proportioned to fourteen Pound of Wool, The Whole Art of Dyeing (1705)

This recipe differs significantly from the other dyeing methods examined in this study, as the dyeing process is carried out in one single step. The following ingredients are used, gallnuts (Quercus infectoria L.), fisetwood (Rhus cotinus L.), madder (Rubia tinctorium L.), and gummi gutti (Gum-resin is the yellow pigment gamboge, a resin obtained from Garcenia morella L., genus Guttiferae) [33] (p. 164), and are combined in a one-dye bath to color the wool (Table 2). While the original German text does not describe the resulting color as fillemot, the English translation refers to it as A deep fillemot. (Figure 7). This is the version that was reconstructed in the present research. However, two other variations of the recipe, by adding verdigris (copper(II) sulfate Cu(CH₃COO)₂ or vitriol (iron(II) sulfate, FeSO₄·7H₂O), produced a lighter color.

• A deep Fillemot Dye proportioned to fourteen Pound of Wool: Take five Ounces of Galls, eight Ounces of Fucette or Virette Wood, four Ounces of Madder and one of Gummi Gutta: when the Dye is boiled, stir the Ware in it, till the Dye hath sufficiently penetrated it. If you design it brighter then use only three Ounces of Galls, and three Ounces of Madder, and add two Ounces of Virdigreece. Or otherwise, take four Ounces of Fucette Wood, two Ounces of Galls, half an Ounce of Madder, and half an Ounce of Vitriol.
• Reconstruction

Table 2. Work process and ingredients: a deep Fillemot Dye proportioned to fourteen pounds of Wool.

Preparing Bran Water	Mordanting	Dyeing
According to the recipe A Bran Water for slight Stuffes	1:3 ratio of bran-water to soft water Alum 12.5% WOF Tartar 6.25% WOF	Galls 2.04% WOF Fisetwood 3.2% WOF Madder 1.6% WOF Gummi gutti 0.4% WOF

Table 2. Work process and ingredients: a deep Fillemot Dye proportioned to fourteen pounds of Wool.

Preparing Bran Water	Mordanting	Dyeing
According to the recipe A Bran Water for slight Stuffes	1:3 ratio of bran-water to soft water Alum 12.5% WOF Tartar 6.25% WOF	Galls 2.04% WOF Fisetwood 3.2% WOF Madder 1.6% WOF Gummi gutti 0.4% WOF

• Fillemot, The whole Art of Dying (1705)

This recipe, called fillemotte in the Whole Art of Dyeing and Fillemort oder Feuille morte in the German version Ars Tinctoria Experimentalis (Figure 8), is carried out in three steps. The recipes start from a yellow-dyed material. The wool is first mordanted with alum (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O) and cream of tartar (KC₄H₅O₆), the same recipe than the previous recipe. After that the wool is dyed yellow using weld (Reseda luteola L.) with the addition of wood ash (ashes from oak tree). This yellow wool is then passed through a black dye bath. The black bath is made with gallnuts (Quercus infectoria L.), “brownwood”, for which alder bark (Alnus glutinosa L.) was used in this reconstruction and copperas (iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4·7H2O). In the third and final step, the dark wool is passed through a red bath made from brazilwood, shavings from pernambuco wood, (Paubrasilia echinata (Lam.) Gagnon, H.C.Lima & G.P.Lewis; syn. Caesalpinia echinata L.), to achieve the correct shade (Table 3).

Throughout the recipe book, multiple recipes for yellow and black are given. For the reconstruction the following recipes were used.

Two preparatory recipes are needed to achieve the final color.

To dye Yellow. Allom your Ware as usual for half an Hour. Then for every Pound, take half a pound of Yellow Dye Weed, a Hand ful of Wood ashes, boil them a quarter of an Hour, then throw your rinced Ware into the Liquor, Work it about till you find it well Dyed, then cool and rince it

[5] (pp. 74–75).

A Black dye which is often used with good succes Fill your Kettle with very clear Water, and to Dye ten pieces of Frize or coarse Stuff take two Pound and a half of right Turkish Galls, one Pound and a half of Brown wood, or Walnut Tree; boil them very well together, then put in the Stuffs and let them boil two Hours, and lye a whole Night in the Liquor, take them out and if you have any old Dye suds, that hath before been used, pour it to the Gall Liquor and add two Pound of Copperas, let them thoroughly boil, then put in these Stuffs, boil them two Hours and leave them a whole Night in the Liquor, then rince them out and let them be very carefully and nicely Dyed; if it be in a kiln, ‘tis so much the better; rub them with a pumice Stone, and smooth them very well, then pour the Dye out of the Kettle and keep it, and repeat the mentioned Operation in every particular; Iron the Stuff a little with a hot Iron after which take Water, and two Pound and a half of Turkish Galls, one Pound and a half of Brown-wood, and Dye them a third time after the same manner: and they will be black enough, but if you would have the Dye more bright and beautiful, take a Kettle full of fair clear Water, put into it half a Pound of Calcined Vitriol, and one Pound of Tartar, boil the Stuffs in this Liquor an Hour, and rince them out, then put fresh Water into the Kettle, and for every Piece of twelve Ells, put in half a Pound of Brown Wood, and boil the Stuffs half an Hour, or an Hour, and if you would have the black yet finer, and better, then Dye it once in the Following Soot Dye

[5] (pp. 77–78).

Fillemotte: Pass your Yellow Dyed Ware through the hot black Dye, and when it is cool rince it, still observing that the lighter the Yellow is the lighter the Fillemott is to be expected, then hang fair Water over the Fire, and put in half an Ounce of Brasil Wood, boil it a quarter of an hour, and then pass the Ware through it

(Figure 9 and Figure 10).

• Reconstruction

Table 3. Work process and ingredients, Fillemotte.

Preparing Bran Water and Mordanting	Dyeing Yellow to Dye Yellow	Dyeing black A Black Dye Which Is Often Used with Good Succes	Dyeing Red
Same recipe than A deep fillemot	weld 50% WOF wood ashes 20% WOF	Galls 25% WOF Alder bark 6% WOF Iron(II) sulfate 20% WOF	Brazil Wood 3% WOF

Table 3. Work process and ingredients, Fillemotte.

Preparing Bran Water and Mordanting	Dyeing Yellow to Dye Yellow	Dyeing black A Black Dye Which Is Often Used with Good Succes	Dyeing Red
Same recipe than A deep fillemot	weld 50% WOF wood ashes 20% WOF	Galls 25% WOF Alder bark 6% WOF Iron(II) sulfate 20% WOF	Brazil Wood 3% WOF

Figure 10. From left to right: to dye yellow, A black dye which is often used with good succes, fillemot (passing through the red brazil wood bath).

Figure 10. From left to right: to dye yellow, A black dye which is often used with good succes, fillemot (passing through the red brazil wood bath).

3.3. Color Measurement

To objectively assess the color variation, measurements were taken using the CIELAB color space, developed by the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE). The CIELAB system defines color through three coordinates: L* indicates the lightness ranging from 0 (black) to white 100 (white), the a* ranges from green (negative values) to red (positive values), and b* ranges from blue (negative) to yellow (positive).

Color measurements of the reconstructed dyed samples were performed using an Avantes AvaSpec-2048L spectrometer combined with the AvaLight-LED and AvaLight-DH-S-BAL light source. All measurements followed the CIE 2⁰ standard observer with a D65 illuminant, simulating daylight and commonly used in textile analysis. Three measurements were taken and averaged for each sample.

4. Results and Discussion

The results (Figure 11) include five recipes, two reconstructions from Conste des ververs (1619–1623): Om fillenoert te maecken rec. 46 (using iron(II)sulfate), and rec. 29 (using zinksulfate) [20], including Feuilje Mort from the Haarlem Manuscript (1669–1700), A Deep Fillemot, and Fillemot from The Whole Art of Dyeing (1705).

Figure 12 presents the CIELAB values in a 3D scatter plot, showing the distribution of color data points in relation to their L*, a*, and b* coordinates. Corresponding values for each sample are listed in the table, indicating both the source and measured color characteristics. Additionally, two color measurements from historical reconstructions by D. Cardon were included for comparison, though obtained with different equipment and under varying conditions [11]. As such, some deviations in results may occur.

The CIELAB measurements reveal significant chromatic variation across the seven samples. The a* values range from −3.66 to 14.56, and the b* values from 10.30 to 49.58, indicating differences in hue and chroma among the recipes.

Samples 1, 2, and 5, based on Conste des ververs rec. 46 and rec. 29 om fillenoert te maeken and the Fillemotte recipe in The Whole Art of Dyeing, involve initially dyeing wool yellow, followed by immersion in a black dye bath. This process yields dark green tones, reflected in their low L* values and a* values trending toward green. Their CIELAB coordinates cluster closely, suggesting visually similar outcomes.

In contrast, Samples 6 and 7, derived from two French recipes, show higher b* values and moderate a* values, resulting in ochre-yellow hues. These recipes employ similar methods, including a bruniture step using madder and gallnuts. Sample 7, from Mémoires de teinture, also incorporates soot, contributing to a deeper tone.

Samples 3, Feuiljemort from the Haarlem Manuscript, and sample 4, deep fillemotte from The Whole Art of Dyeing, occupy an intermediate position in the CIELAB space, between the greenish and ochre-yellow samples. This chromatic gradient reflects both technical and regional diversity in the historical understanding and reproduction of dead leaf colors.

As expected, dead leaf hues span a wide range of colors, from khaki green to deep yellow, gray, and reddish tones, observable to the naked eye and confirmed by the CIELAB data. Recipe variation stems from both ingredients and dyeing methods, which range from one to three steps. Notably, four of the six recipes employ a two-step process: yellow dyeing followed by darkening. Common ingredients include weld, gallnuts, madder, and fustic. The diversity in recipes is mirrored in the chromatic outcomes of the reconstructions.

5. Conclusions

These results contribute to a deeper understanding of historical color practices and the cultural significance that dead leaf holds as a color category. In terms of the literally meaning “dead leaf”, the term functioned metaphorically, encompassing a flexible range of muted browns, yellows, greens, and reddish hues. Rather than denoting a precise color, dead leaf evoked naturalistic associations and embodied the descriptive, rather than prescriptive, nature of early modern color language.

The recipes omit specific quantities, temperatures, or dye times, relying on the tacit knowledge of dyers and their ability to judge outcomes by eye. Methodological reconstructions combined with spectral analysis, however, demonstrate that these historical recipes can yield consistent and reproducible results. Through this process, dead leaf has been redefined in measurable terms, offering tangible insight into early modern material culture and giving this once metaphorical color a concrete identity.

In addition to technical and visual insights, this study highlights the importance of situating historical dye recipes within their regional and cultural contexts. Comparing the southern French recipes with those from the Low Countries and England reveals not only chromatic variation but also differences in the scale and organization of dyeing practices, as professional dye houses worked with swatches and standardized methods to move to more local, possibly domestic settings.

The transmission of recipes across manuscripts, as seen in the repetition of the feuillemort recipe in sources from Friesland, The Hague, and Haarlem, underscores the dynamic process of knowledge-sharing and adaptation. The copying of recipes by authors such as Jacoba van Veen also suggests the presence of informal learning networks and a possible role for women in the dissemination of dyeing knowledge.

Reconstructing these recipes thus offers more than just insight into historical color: it opens a window onto the craft communities and social contexts that shaped how color was produced, named, and understood. By linking chromatic outcomes to the time and place in which these recipes were recorded or transmitted, we not only revive lost hues, but reconnect them with the people, practices, and materials of their time.

Historical dye recipes reveal the precision, skill, and sensory judgment involved in historical color-making. Instructions such as “repeat until it is good” highlight the importance of embodied knowledge and craftmanship in dyeing practices.

Linking historical terminology to laboratory-measurable outcomes bridges the gap between intangible heritage and scientific reproducibility. This interdisciplinary approach enhances cultural heritage conservation, enabling more accurate reconstructions and digital visualizations of lost color palettes.

By integrating historical semantics with material analysis, we can further illuminate how color was perceived, named, and produced in the past.