The Floristic Composition and Phytoecological Characterization of Plant Communities in the M’Goun Geopark, High Atlas, Morocco

Abstract

Moroccan vegetation faces significant pressure particularly from human activities and climate change, while most ecosystems lack detailed assessments. Phytoecological studies and species assessments are implemented using vegetation sampling, analysis of climate data, geological substrate maps, and the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The study area hosts 565 plant species distributed into 74 families, with Asteraceae being the most abundant family, representing 17.7%. In addition, the correspondence analysis test demonstrates that species are grouped into six distinct blocks. Block 1 comprises a set of Quercus ilex forests. Block 2 encompasses Juniperus phoenicea lands and transition zones between Quercus ilex and Juniperus phoenicea. Block 3 represents Pinus halepensis forests and pine occurrences within Quercus ilex and Juniperus phoenicea stands. Block 4 indicates the emergence of xerophytic species alongside the aforementioned species; it forms the upper limits of Blocks 1, 2, and 3. Block 5 corresponds to formations dominated by Juniperus thurifera in association with xerophytes. Block 6 groups together a set of xerophytic species characteristic of high mountain environments. Additionally, Quercus ilex colonizes the subhumid zones and prefers limestone substrates, Juniperus phoenicea and Tetraclinis articulata, and Pinus halepensis occupies the hot part of the semi-arid in limestone, clays, and conglomerates, while the Juniperus thurifera and xerophytes inhabit the cold parts and limestone substrates. The thermo-Mediterranean vegetation level occupies low altitudes, dominated by Tetraclinis articulata, Juniperus phoenicea, and Olea europaea. The meso-Mediterranean level extends to intermediate altitudes, dominated by Quercus ilex and Juniperus phoenicea. While the supra-Mediterranean level is dominated by Quercus ilex, Arbutus unedo, and Cistus creticus. The mountain Mediterranean level, located in the high mountains, is dominated by Juniperus thurifera associated with xerophytes. Finally, the oro-Mediterranean level, found at extreme altitudes, is dominated by xerophytes. Some species within this region are endemic, rare, and threatened. Consequently, the implementation of effective conservation and protection policies is recommended.

1. Introduction

The concept of biodiversity encompasses all genes, species, habitats, and ecosystems on Earth [1]. It has key roles at all levels of ecosystem services, firstly as a regulator of ecosystem processes, as a final ecosystem service, and as a good that is subject to economic valuation or otherwise [2]. However, habitat degradation, intensive agriculture, overexploitation of renewable resources, and climate change have reached unprecedented levels [3]. Biodiversity loss is now recognized as a major and urgent environmental issue, warranting swift action to mitigate it [4]. In addition, biodiversity is a vital sector for its socioeconomic development [5] and also in protected areas [6].

The Mediterranean region is one of the most degraded regions in the world, having undergone significant changes in its primary natural ecosystems [7]. Additionally, the region is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot [8], making it the third richest hotspot in the world in terms of plant diversity [9]. It is home to approximately 30,000 plant species, with over 13,000 of them being endemic, found nowhere else in the world [10]. However, this diversity is threatened due to human population density, urban areas, and agriculture [11]. In addition, the loss, fragmentation, and degradation of habitats due to human activities are the main threats to this richness [12]. This vegetation is organized into elevational belts, commonly referred to as vegetation levels. The Thermo-Mediterranean level extends up to 400–600 m, the Meso-Mediterranean level from 600 to 1000 m, the Supra-Mediterranean level from 1000 to 1600 m, the Oro-Mediterranean level from 1600 to 2200 m, while the Alti-Mediterranean level occurs above 2200 m [13]. Quézel (1976) refined this classification, resulting in a revised system with Infra-Mediterranean, Thermo-Mediterranean, Meso-Mediterranean, Supra-Mediterranean, Montane-Mediterranean, and Oro-Mediterranean levels within the Mediterranean biome [14]. Each belt is characterized by a distinct vegetation cover. For instance, the Oro-Mediterranean level often consists of grazed grasslands or thorny xerophytic garrigues interspersed with sparse Juniperus trees [15]. However, the Montane-Mediterranean level is characterized by conifers (firs, Mediterranean pines, and cedars) [16].

Morocco is home to approximately 24,000 animal species and 7000 plant species [17], due to a wide variety of geological substrates, topographies, and climates [18]. This country inhabits large-scale ecosystem diversity, such as coastal and marine ecosystems; inland aquatic ecosystems and wetlands; terrestrial forest and pre-forest, steppe, and pre-steppe ecosystems; rocky and high mountain ecosystems; agroecosystems; and desert and oasis ecosystems [19]. Indeed, Morocco encompasses a wide coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean (3500 km), two mountain ranges (the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Anti-Atlas in the center, and Rif in the North), as well as the oases and desert ecosystems in the South [19].

The High Atlas is one of the most important Moroccan regions in terms of biological diversity and one of the major Mediterranean biodiversity hotspots [20]. Furthermore, the High Atlas meadows inhabit 4200 recorded species, distributed across 940 genera and 135 families, with 550 species endemic to Morocco [21]. The M’Goun Geopark (situated in Central High Atlas) has a rich and varied geological and biological diversity [22]. The High Atlas inhabits an outstanding richness in terms of geology and geosites (Ouzoud Cascades, Imi nifri natural bridge, dinosaurs’ footprints and skeletons, Cathedral Msfrane cliff, and so on), traditional building practices, and world heritage sites [19]. These features led to a significant part of the High Atlas being recognized by UNESCO (2014) as a Global Geopark. However, the region attracts a large number of tourists and camping activity, which causes pollution and exacerbates pressure on the region’s biodiversity. In addition, the vegetation cover in the High Atlas and Geopark M’Goun has experienced unprecedented pressure, climate change, and anthropogenic activities contributing to the loss of 79% of dense forests and 30% of medium dense cover [23]. Gharnit et al. (2025) have assessed the region’s rangeland diversity and proved that these rangelands host 509 species where at least 27.73% of the assessed species are threatened according to the IUCN. The endemism rate is 21%, with 49.5% of these endemic species restricted solely to Morocco. Rarity criteria indicate a 17.43% rarity rate, including 8.4% considered very rare, 4.42% rare, and three vulnerable [24].

Global biodiversity is in rapid decline and halting biodiversity loss is one of the most important challenges humanity must tackle now and in the immediate future [25]. Species diversity is one of the most widely adopted metrics for assessing patterns and processes of biodiversity, at both ecological and biogeographic scales [26], allowing the detection of rare and threatened species; indeed, monitoring of threatened species and threatened ecosystems is critical for determining population trends, identifying the urgency of management responses, and assessing the efficacy of management interventions [27]. Species diversity as measured by inventories is crucial for the selection of areas of conservation and management [28]. In addition, inventories permit detecting the effect of non-native species on native biodiversity with potentially devastating consequences [29]. While ecological studies on restoration have largely focused on community ecology and ecosystem ecology, particularly, plants [24,30]. Therefore, it is important to elaborate not only on the diversity of a site but also on ecology and phytoecology. This evaluation necessitates a rigorous sampling method, such as the Braun–Blanquet approach based on ‘relevés’. This method is widely recognized as an excellent tool for ecological analysis, particularly effective in identifying the diversity of different vegetation types [31].

This study aims to determine the floristic richness and composition of the entire Mgoun Geopark (Morocco), assess species rarity and endemism, and construct a comprehensive phytoecology of the site, including an analysis of elevational vegetation distribution (vegetation levels), bioclimatic conditions (temperatures and precipitations), and substrate types and life forms.

2. Methodology

2.1. Study Area

The UNESCO Global Geopark of M’Goun (Figure 1) constitutes the majority of the massifs of the Central High Atlas in Morocco located in the center of Morocco. The highest point is Ighil M’Goun (4068 m) [32], the area of the Geopark shown in Figure 1, recognized by UNESCO in 2014, is 5700 km². It encompasses 15 rural communes, housing 200,000 inhabitants [19]. The study area elevation oscillates between 544 m and 3708 m, while the mean elevation of the site is 1588 m.

From a geological perspective, this part of the High Atlas is composed of a thick, folded Meso-Cenozoic cover that almost entirely overlays the underlying Paleozoic basement [33], and a highly diverse geological substrate, comprising limestone, clays, dolomites, marls, volcanic rocks, detrital formations, and others [23]. There are 22 geosites inventoried in the UNESCO Global Geopark of M’Goun: eight sites are purely geological (observation of a geological section or structure), six are paleontological sites (dinosaur footprints), four sites have an anthropogenic origin (rock engravings, architectural heritage, and dam lake), and four sites are geomorphological (the Ouzoud waterfalls, the travertine bridge of Imi-n-Ifri, the Tizi-n-Tighza landslide, and the Mastfrane rock) [19,34].

The region features a variety of topographic and climatic characteristics. The terrain is generally mountainous between 540 and 3700 m, and the bioclimatic zones range from semi-arid or subhumid to humid (with precipitation between 550 mm and 700 mm) [19,23,35], with temperatures ranging from below 0 °C in winter to above 40 °C during summer [19]. Generally, the region has a Mediterranean climate characterized by rainy, cold winters and dry, hot summers [24] as confirmed by Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4.

2.1.1. Temperature

The spatial distribution of minimum, maximum, and annual average temperatures for the entire M’Goun Geopark (Figure 5) illustrates a continentality effect associated with the elevation effect in the Atlas Mountains and the plain. The average annual, maximum, and minimum temperatures are, respectively, around −9.37 °C and 23.4 °C at the mountain peaks and 3 °C and 34. 42 °C at lower elevations.

2.1.2. Rainfall Distribution

The lowest levels are found in the middle of the Geopark and the highest levels are found in the crests of the Atlas Mountains and the plains. The distribution of precipitation (Figure 6) shows a gradient in terms of elevation, linked to the combined effects of oceanic moisture currents and the Atlas Mountain barrier. Moreover, we observe the presence of two large precipitation depressions linked to site effects and topography. They are located in the Zaouit Ahansal Valley, where precipitation does not exceed 350 mm on average, with a total average between 356 and 622 mm.

2.1.3. Bioclimatic Zones

Variations in minimum and maximum temperatures (

Table 1. The climate patterns fluctuations between 1960 and 2019.

Period	Tmin (Min–Max) in °C	Tmax (Min–Max) in °C	Precipitations (Min–Max) in mm	Q2 (Min–Max)
1960–1969	−9.97–2.18	20.9–30.83	369.67–658.68	42.63–77.62
1970–1979	−9.37–3.12	23.5–34.42	350.32–605.81	37.92–66.91
1980–1989	−10–2.34	23.5–34.63	295.56–506.28	31–54.39
1990–1999	−9.74–2.89	23.87–35.17	307.88–541.58	32.34–58.25
2000–2009	−8.86–2.39	24.42–35.65	309.58–533.49	32–57.67
2010–2019	−9.39–3	24.60–36.12	329.25–571.19	33.96–60.76

), as well as precipitation, act as the primary drivers of shifts in humid and sub-humid bioclimatic zones, including their variety such as extremely cold, very cold, cold, and cool zones (Figure 7). These changes, induced by climatic fluctuations, are not uniform and can be observed at various temporal and spatial scales. The sub-humid varieties are extremely cold, very cold, cold, and fresh, while the semi-arid bioclimate with extremely cold, very cold, cold, and fresh varieties.

Low-elevation areas are primarily used for agricultural purposes. As elevation increases, the amount of cultivated land decreases due to harsher climatic conditions. Agricultural activities gradually transition to extensive livestock grazing, with these higher-elevation areas serving as rangelands [24,36]. The region boasts a rich vegetation cover, rangelands dominate the landscape, while limited areas are cultivated with olive trees, seasonal crops, and other agricultural pursuits [7].

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Sampling, Species Identification, and Floristic Analysis

A survey carried out generally during the period of vegetation development, when the majority of plant species are visible and easily recognizable (flowering and/or fruiting) [37]. In the field, varying transect sizes were employed to accommodate the diverse topography of the region. Line transects were employed during the sampling process. To ensure sampling representativeness, the sampling was surveyed until the addition of new species became negligible. Data on species presence/absence was recorded during this study.

The sampling surveys in the M’Goun Geopark were conducted in March, April, May, and June of 2022, 2023, and 2024. In total, we implement 206 floristic surveys. This means that we conducted surveys at various points within the area. The transects varied in length, ranging from 50 m to 200 m, the length of line transects was determined based on the slope’s magnitude and shape and a total of 30.900 m of length was sampled.

The identification and location of species, using the practical flora of Morocco [38]. The classification adopted was APG III and APG IV [39,40]. In order to identify the different vegetation groups, the Correspondence Analysis (CA) method is utilized. This statistical technique reduces the dimensions of data into a few components to explain variations [41], and is a multivariate method that allows for the elucidation of relationships between biological assemblages of species and their environment [42].

2.2.2. Phytoecology

Concerning the ecological factors, the map of bioclimatic zones is constructed using Emberger’s Pluviometric Quotient (Q₂) for the Mediterranean climatic zone [43],

$${\mathrm{Q}}_2={\displaystyle \frac{1000\mathrm{P}}{\frac{(\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{m})(\mathrm{M}+\mathrm{m})}{2}}}$$

Q₂: bioclimatic quotient index, P: annual precipitation (mm), M: maximum temperature of the warmest month (K), m: minimum temperature of the coldest month (K).

The Q₂ permits the characterization of the bioclimatic zones and the minimum temperature during the coldest month aids in defining climatic variants. The selected bioclimatic zones include the Saharan zone, arid zone, semi-arid zone, sub-humid zone, humid zone, and per-humid zone [15]. Each of these climates corresponds to a set of plant communities with the same general characteristics [42].

Vegetation levels are vertical distribution or elevational organization of plant cover, generally adopted by exploitation of the synthetic climate of Emberger, Quézel, and Barbero [19,44], the vegetation strata are thermos-Mediterranean, meso-Mediterranean, Infra-Mediterranean, Oro-Mediterranean, mountain Mediterranean [45].

The life form is determined based on the Raunkiaer system: Th for therophyte; Cr for Cryptophyte (including Geophytes); Hm for Hemicryptophytes; Ch for Chamaephytes; Ph for phanerophytes; and NPh for nanophanerophytes.

Endemism is elaborated using the ‘Flore Pratique du Maroc’ as follows: E: Moroccan endemic, EA: Morocco-Algerian, EC: Morocco and Canary Islands, EP: Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. EAP: Morocco–Algerian and Iberian Peninsula, EAT: Morocco-Algerian and Tunisia.

Concerning rarity, the catalog of threatened and endemic plants is exploited. Indeed, based on the localities where the species are inventoried, Fennane and Ibn Tattou (1998) have classified Moroccan plant species as extremely rare (RR) for the species encountered in less than five localities, and (RR?) for the suspected very rare species. Rare species (R) for the species reported in two divisions in Emberger and Maire (1941). The suspected rare species are noted (R?). The species that undergo profound changes or are under extreme exploitation are indicated as vulnerable (V), and the species with unknown status are pointed as (??) [46].

The Worldclim is used to access spatial climate data (http://www.worldclim.org: accessed on 20 November 2024). These data were utilized to generate maps of temperature, precipitation, bioclimatic zones, and vegetation levels. Following the data download, the raw maps were clipped to the study area boundary using a shapefile. Subsequently, the pixel resolution of the maps was resampled to 30 m. The ecological factors considered in this analysis include elevation and substrate type. Later, the climatic parameters are determined based on the coordinates of the transect occurrences, projected onto the map of various parameters: Tmin, Tmax, and precipitation. While the substrates are determined using the coordinates of transects and the geological map of Morocco (https://www.mem.gov.ma/en/Pages/secteur.aspx?e=8: accessed on 20 November 2024).

3. Results

3.1. Plant Richness and Floristic Analysis

The flora of the M’Goun Geopark encompasses 565 vascular plant species, distributed among 74 families. The Asteraceae family is the richest, accounting for 17.7% of species inventoried in the M’Goun Geopark (accounting for 100 species). Fabaceae are classified in the second place, with 60 species, and represent 10.62%. Poaceae occupy third place accounting for 37 species (6.55%). Lamiaceae are represented by 32 species (5.75%). Caryophyllaceae had a total number of 31 species representing 5.48% of the Geoparc flora, while Brassicaceae have 30 species (5.31%). Apiaceae have 25 species representing 4.42% of the total species. Plantaginaceae are represented by 17 species (3%). Rubiaceae are represented by 13 species (2.3%). Asparagaceae are represented by 11 species (1.94%) and Amaranthaceae, Caprifoliaceae, and Cistaceae by 10 species each. Euphorbiaceae and Ranunculaceae have 9 species each, while Campanulaceae, Crassulaceae, Geraniaceae, and Rosaceae are represented by 8 species each. The full species list sampled in the study area is provided in the Supplementary File.

The most represented genera are Astragalus represented by nine, followed by Euphorbia and Medicago with eight each. The Centaurea is represented by seven species, Galium, Silene, and Convolvulus, and Genista is represented by six species each. Trifloium and Campanula are represented by 5 species.

The CA plot (Figure 8) and

Table 2. The floristic assemblages and their floristic composition.

Blocs		Transects	Abundant Species
Bloc 1	F1	T6, T14, T4, T2, T5, T1, T56, T7	Quercus ilex, Anchusa azurea, Astragalus incanus, Bromus madritensis, Campanula filicaulis, Catananche caerulea, Echinops spinosissimus, Lactuca tenerrima, Silene vulgaris, Asperula hirsuta, Picnomon acarna
	F2	T34, T36, T32, T15, T8, T35, T31, T10, T25, T9, T45, T18, T11	Galium tricornicum, Papaver rhoeas, Bromus madritensis, Quercus ilex, Anchusa azurea, Medicago minima, Mantisalca salmantica, Plantago afra, Scolymus hispanicus, Beta macrocarpa, Medicago monspeliaca, Silene vulgaris, Sonchus asper
	F3	T3, T13, T29, T17, T57, T39, T20, T23, T19, T24, T22, T16	Quercus ilex, Hordeum murinum, Asphodelus macrocarpus, Galium tricornicum, Romulea bulbocodium, Anchusa azurea, Asperula hirsuta, Astragalus hamosus, Echinaria capitata, Echinops spinosissimus, Ononis cristata, Salvia verbenaca
Bloc 2	F4	T146, T78, T145, T51, T55, T27, T42, T46	Quercus ilex, Clematis cirrhosa, Echinops spinosissimus, Arthemisia herba alba, Bromus madritensis, Buxus balearica, Carlina hispanica, Chamaerops humilis, Convolvulus althaeoides, Hordeum murinum, Juniperus phoenicea
	F5	T100, T47, T41, T107, T85, T30, T101, T86, T125, T43, T106, T99, T82, T105	Juniperus phoenicea, Anchusa azurea, Quercus ilex, Silene vulgaris, Alyssum alyssoides, Asperula arvensis, Atractylis cancellata, Avena fatua, Dactylis glomerata, Erodium cicutarium, Hedypnois rhagadioloides, Isatis tinctoria, Lactuca tenerrima, Medicago minima, Papaver rhoeas, Schismus barbatus, Torilis leptophylla
	F6	T89, T69, T120, T75, T94, T62, T67, T68, T72, T118, T129, T81, T61, T92, T96, T66, T71, T95, T73, T104, T63, T81, T49, T88, T91, T93, T90, T101, T64, T93, T63	Juniperus phoenicea, Stipellula capensis, Chamaerops humilis, Bromus madritensis, Pistacia lentiscus, Atractylis cancellata, A. sterilis, Torilis nodosa, Ceratonia siliqua, Cladanthus arabicus, Sonchus oleraceus, Tetraclinis articulata, Ziziphus lotus, Euphorbia resinifera…
	F7	T139, T111, T133, T102 T77, T98, T28 T84, T87, T80, T103, T110, T144, T130, T131, T121, T49, T46	Juniperus phoenicea, Picnomon acarna, Pinus halepensis, Buxus balearica, Quercus ilex, Thymus algeriensis, Lactuca tenerrima, Thymus saturejoides, Ajuga iva, Chondrella jencea, Crambe filiformis, Dactylis glomerata, Deverra scoparia, Genista scorpius, Globularia nainii, Lactuca viminea, Phagnalon saxatile, Phillyrea angustifolia, Salvia verbenaca, Teucrium polium, Thymus zygis
Bloc 3	F8	T127, T140, T117, T135, T151, T126	Pinus halepensis, Globularia nainii, Buxus balearica, C. corymbosa, Centaurea melitensis, Cistus creticus, Euphorbia niceensis, Fraxinus angustifolia, Fumana ericoides, Narsturia officinalis, Polygala balansae, Sedum sediforme, Stipellula capensis
	F9	T44, T148, T132, T150	Thymus zygis, Anarrhinum fruticosum, Globularia nainii, Arbutus unedo, Astragalus incanus, Euphorbia taurinensis, Ononis pusilla, Fraxinus angustifolia, Schismus barbatus, Ajuga iva
	F10	T141, T143, T116, T136, T142, 128,	Juniperus phoenicea, Xanthium spinosus, Ajuga iva, Andryala integrifolia, Capparis spinosa, Crambe filiformis, Dittrichia viscosa, Erodium cicutarium, Globularia alypum, Melilotus sulcatus, Mentha peligium, Mentha suaveolens, Nerium oleander, Pinus halepensis, Pistacia lentiscus, Polypogon minspeliensis, Schismus barbatus
	F11	T124, T119, T112, T149, T137, T108, T114, T113, T115, T147	Globularia nainii, Hirschfeldia incana, Lythrum junceum, Pinus halepensis, Pistacia lentiscus, Polygala balansae, Teucrium polium, Bombycilaena erecta, Centaurea calcitrapa, Chondrella jencea, Cistus creticus, Juniperus phoeniceae, Nerium oleander, Populus nigra, Schismus barbatus, Veronica polita, Anarrhinum fruticosum, Centaurea melitensis, Cistus albidus, Dianthus nudiflorus, Dittrichia viscosa
Bloc 4	F12	T52, T54, T160, T53, T50, T194, T196, T161	Euphorbia niceensis, Fraxinus angustifolia, Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Bellis annua, Eryngium campestre, Lactuca tenerrima, poclama brevifolia, Quercus, Astragalus incanus, Bromus madritensis, Crambe filiformis, Euphorbia terracina, Globularia nainii, Marrubium ayardii
	F13	T175, T162, T195, T190	Teucrium chamaedrys, Alyssum spinosum, Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Arenaria pungens, asperula hirsuta, Bupleurum spinosum, Cerastium arvense, Helianthemum cenereum, Jurinea humilis, Minuartia funkii, Thymelaea virgata, Thymus zygis
	F14	T193, T58, T38, T197, T37, T59	Quercus ilex, Astragalus granatensis, Campanula filicaulis, Ononis spinosa, Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Scutellaria orientalis, Teucrium chamaedrys, Aegilops geniculate, Asperula hirsuta, Bromus madritensis, Cirsium acaule, Convolvulus lineatus, Coronilla minima, Crataegus lacinata
Bloc 5	F15	T187, T173, T164, T178	Cytisus balansae, Euphorbia niceensis, Alyssum spinosum, Hirschfeldia incana, Anthyllis vulneraria Arthemisia herba alba Buxus balearica, Cirsium dyris, Coronilla minima, Delphinium gracile, Helianthemum apenninum, Juniperus thurifera, Jurinea humilis, Ormenis scariosa, Quercus ilex, Scorzonera caespitosa
	F16	T163, T167, T185, T165	Arthemisia herba alba, Ormenis scariosa, Euphorbia niceensis, Sanguisorba minor, Alyssum spinosum, Asperula cynanchica, Avena barbata, Bupleurum spinosum, Coronilla minima, Erinacea Anthyllis, Helianthemum cinereum, Hieracium pseudopilosella, Vella maierii
	F17	T172, T188, T181, T189	Euphorbia nicaeensis, Ribes uva-crispa, Coronilla minima, Erinacea Anthyllis, Alyssum serpyllifolium, Buxus balearica; Cytisus balansae, Juniperus thurifera, Raffenaldia platycarpa, Scorzonera angustifolia, Scorzonera caespitosa, Thymelaea virgata
Bloc 6	F18	T179, T171, T184	Alyssum spinosum, Scorzonera caespitosa, Thymus pallidus, Arenaria pungens, Carduncellus atractyloides, Centaurea takredensis, Convolvulus sabatius, Delphinium gracile, Erinacea Anthyllis, Euphorbia niceensis, Euphorbia sagitalis, Juniperus thurifera
	F19	T186, T191, T180, T177, T155, T152, T174	Alyssum spinosum, Bupleurum spinosum, Carduncellus atractyloides, Centaurea takredensis, Cytisus balansae, Erinacea Anthyllis, Euphorbia nicaeensis, Vella maierii, Ribes uva-crispa, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Arenaria pungens, Berberis vulgaris, Bupleurum atlanticum, Cirsium dyris, Delphinium gracile, Juniperus thurifera, Minuartia funkii, Ormenis scariosa, Prunus prostrata, Rahmnus liscoides, Thymus pallidus
	F20	T183, T153, T168	Euphorbia nicaeensis, Alyssum spinosum Erinacea Anthyllis, Juniperus thurifera, Scorzonera caespitosa, Vella mairei, Arthemisia herba alba, Bupleurum, atlanticum, Bupleurum spinosum, Convolvulus lineatus, Ormenis scariosa
	F21	T176, T154, T182, T170, T157, T192, T156	Arenaria pungens, Valla mairei, Alyssum spinosum, Erinacea Anthyllis, Bupleurum spinosum, Clinopodium alpinum, Cytisus balansae, Euphorbia niceensis, Euphorbia megatlantica, Scorzonera caespitosa, Berberis vulgaris, Coronilla minima, Ormenis scariosa, Papaver atlanticum, Ruta montana, Stipa nitans

reveal that the species are gathered into six blocks, and each bloc may be subdivided into subsets, hence 21 subgroups of species are revealed:

Bloc 1: The floristic composition indicates holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) forests and their clearings in the region. These are subhumid forests of the area. Generally, the subgroups of this bloc are homogenous in terms of floristic composition.

Bloc 2: This group is heterogeneous: F4 and F5. The presence of Quercus ilex L. and Juniperus phoenicea L. suggests that these subgroups are ecotones (transition zones) between Quercus ilex L. and Juniperus phoenicea L. forests. F6 represents Juniperus phoenicea L. forests in a warm semi-arid climate (abundant: Ceratonia siliqua L., Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast., Ziziphus lotus (L.) Lam.). F7 is another transition zone between Quercus ilex L. ilex, Juniperus phoenicea L., and Pinus halepensis Mill.

Bloc 3: F8 represents Pinus halepensis Mill forests. F9 represents clearings in Pinus halepensis Mill forests, with primarily Glubularia nainii Batt. and Anarrhinum fruticosum Desf. F10 and F11 represent co-occurrence zones of Juniperus phoenicea L. and Pinus halepensis Mill.

Bloc 4: The floristic composition of this group indicates that it is the zone of appearance of xerophytes: Euphorbia niceensis All., Marrubium ayardii Maire, Alyssum spinosum L., Bupleurum spinosum Gouan, and Astragalus granatensis Lam. These are the upper limits of the different groups mentioned above.

Bloc 5: F15 and F16 are formations of Juniperus thurifera L. associated with xerophytes. Deforestation is significant at this level. Consequently, only xerophytes persist (F17). The bundnat species at this level are Cytisus balansae (Boiss.) Ball, Euphorbia niceensis All., Juniperus thurifera L., Scorzonera caespitosa Pomel, Artemisia herba alba Asso, Ormenis scariosa (Ball) Litard, and Maire.

Bloc 6: This is the domain of spiny xerophytes of high mountains, highly rich with Arenaria pungens Clemente ex Lag., Vella mairei Humbert, Alyssum spinosum L, Erinacea anthyllis Link, Bupleurum spinosum Gouan, Cytisus balansae (Boiss.) Ball, Euphorbia niceensis All, Euphorbia megalatlantica Ball, and Scorzonera caespitosa Pomel.

3.2. Endemism and Rarity

Fourty-six species are extremely rare in Morocco, four are suspected very rare, twenty-four are rare, twenty-four are suspected rare, three are vulnerable, and three have unknown status (Figure 9).

Twenty-four species are endemic to Morocco, while thirteen inhabit only Moroccan and Algerian territory. Seven species are endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. Fourteen species are endemic to Morocco, Algeria, and the Iberian Peninsula, and two are endemic to Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (Figure 10).

3.3. Life Forms

The majority of plants adapted to the ecological conditions of the study area are Therophytes (annual plants), representing roughly 36.24%, and Hemicryptophytes (35.32%). Cryptophytes represent 4.34%, Phanerophytes 10.86%, and Chamephytes 13.15% (Figure 11).

According to the geographic occurrences of the species, 30.53% of species are sampled only in the subhumid climate zone, while 22% occupy the semi-arid level; 52% of them are located in semi-arid fresh and temperate (hot) areas at low elevations, and the rest are situated in the semi-arid cold areas of high mountains. Furthermore, 14% of species are found in both semi-arid hot and subhumid zones, 17% inhabit both subhumid and semi-arid cold zones, and 7% of species colonize all bioclimates in the region (Figure 12).

3.4. The Vegetation Cover

For the A axis (Figure 13A), starting from the north, the northern slopes are characterized by Euphorbia resinefera. Then, Tetraclinis articulata, mixed with Juniperus phoenicea and Ceratonia siliqua becomes dominant. At 1400 m, Tetraclinis articulata disappears, and Juniperus phoenicea, Ceratonia siliqua, and Pistacia lentiscus continue. Around 1600 m, these formations give way to Quercus ilex. In the humid valley of Ait Abbas, Pinus halepensis flourishes between 1200 and 1700 m. The upper limit of Pinus halepensis is inhabited by Juniperus phoenicea between 1800 and 2000 m, followed by Quercus ilex up to 2200 m, where high-mountain xerophytes thrive. The same pattern is repeated on the southern slope (from the Jbel Tizzal summit to the Ait Bougemmez valley), except for the presence of Ormenis scariosa, especially at the Quercus ilex level. After Ait Bougemmaz, Juniperus phoenicea thrives at low elevations, followed by Quercus ilex as the elevation rises. Then, Juniperus thurifera takes over, generally mixed with xerophytes that dominate the landscape starting from 2300 m, where Juniperus thurifera declines

Concerning Axis B (Figure 13B) at the northeastern limit, Chamaerops humilis occupies large areas, occasionally mixed with Quercus ilex (at about 1800 m). Quercus ilex later becomes dominant. Afterward, Juniperus phoenicea appears as the elevation decreases. At low elevations in the Tillouguit site, scattered Tetraclinis articulata trees can be found at about 1300–1400 m. Moving towards the Mesfrane cliff, Juniperus phoenicea becomes the main formation but gradually declines (as the elevation rises) in favor of Pinus halepensis, which dominates the Mesfrane region. The Pinus halepensis and Juniperus phoenicea shape the space, with Juniperus phoenicea dominating the upper limits. The humid parts (northern slopes) are occupied by Buxus balearica and Quercus ilex. At around 1700 m, Pinus halepensis and Juniperus phoenicea disappear, and Quercus ilex takes over. Buxus balearica thrives on rocky soils and cliffs around 2100 m, followed by Juniperus thurifera, which is often mixed with xerophytes (up to 2500 m). These xerophytes become the only species adapted to extreme elevations.

Table 3. Ecological synthesis of the main formation in the M’Goun Geopark the High Atlas of Morocco.

Habitat	Elevation (m)	Tmin (°C)	Tmax (°C)	Precipitation (mm)	Bioclimate	Climatic Variation	Vegetation Zone
Euphorbia resinifera	Up to 1800	8.05–9.06	21.69–22.13	305.13–552.85	Semi-arid and subhumid	Moderate and cold	Meso-Mediterranean
Juniperus phoenicea	Up to 2000	6.92–7.88	19.95–20.56	313.2–571.99	Semi-arid and subhumid	Very cold and cold	Meso- and Thermo-Mediterranean
Chamaerops humilis	Up to 2000	6.62–7.69	20.98–21.43	302.59–545.73	Subhumid and semi-arid	Cold	Supra-Mediterranean
Pinus halepensis	Up to 2200	6.29–7.36	19.13–19.72	278.23–501.08	Subhumid and semi-arid	Cool and cold	Supra- and Meso-Mediterranean
Quercus ilex	Up to 2800	5.61–6.26	18.69–19.33	299.01–548.25	Semi-arid and subhumid	All variants	Supra-, Meso-, Thermo-, and Montane Mediterranean
Juniperus thurifera	Up to 2700	3.41–4.42	16.26–16.98	288.48–499.47	Subhumid and semi-arid	Cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean
Buxus sempervirens	Up to 3000	1.99–2.93	14.9–15.51	281.61–478.13	Subhumid and semi-arid	Cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean
Xerophytes	Up to 3700	2.24–3.26	15.14–15.79	291.93–532.19	Subhumid and semi-arid	Cold and very cold	Montane and Oro-Mediterranean

represents some of the main features of the main vegetation formations. The axis A and B locations are represented in Figure 14.

3.5. The Vegetation Levels and Associated Vegetation

Diversity is generally higher at lower elevations (Thermo- and Meso-Mediterranean), with a gradual decrease as elevation increases. Additionally, diversity is often considerable in formations that encompass more than one vegetation level, commonly referred to as ecotones (F2 and F3) (

Table 4. The specific richness (SR) according to vegetation levels.

Bloc	SR	Formation	Vegetation Level	SR
B1	233	F1	Meso-Mediterranean	91
		F2	Meso-Mediterranean and Supra-Mediterranean	176
		F3	Meso-Mediterranean and Supra-Mediterranean	160
B2	277	F4	Supra-Mediterranean	91
		F5	Meso-Mediterranean	114
		F6	Thermo- Mediterranean	172
		F7	Meso-Mediterranean	134
B3	168	F8	Meso-Mediterranean	64
		F9	Meso-Mediterranean	31
		F10	Meso-Mediterranean	91
		F11	Meso-Mediterranean	111
B4	119	F12	Supra-Mediterranean and Montane Mediterranean	53
		F13	Montane Mediterranean	41
		F14	Supra-Mediterranean and Montane Mediterranean	69
B5	86	F15	Montane Mediterranean	42
		F16	Montane Mediterranean	42
		F17	Montane Mediterranean	57
B6	91	F18	Oro-Mediterranean	27
		F19	Oro-Mediterranean	57
		F20	Oro-Mediterranean	18
		F21	Oro-Mediterranean	53

).

The vegetation levels in the study area are Thermo-Mediterranean, Meso-Mediterranean, Supra-Mediterranean, Mountain Mediterranean, and Oro-Mediterranean. The Thermo-Mediterranean geographic zone is limited to the northern part of the geopark at an elevation approximately between 544 and 1100 m. The species that characterize this level in the area are Ziziphus lotus and Tetraclinis articulata. This part exhibits significant diversity, as these species are mixed with Juniperus phoenicea, Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia atlantica, Ceratonia siliqua, and others. As the elevation rises, the Meso-Mediterranean approximately located between 530 and 1800 m takes over, with the appearance of Quercus ilex, which is well adapted to its condition, and mixed with the same species reported in the previous level at the lower. In the Supra-Mediterranean approximately located between 1100 and 2700 m, extensive forests of Quercus ilex dominate the landscape, mixed with Juniperus oxycedrus. In the semi-arid parts of this level, Pinus halepensis forests thrive, generally mixed with Juniperus phoenicea and others. The mountain Mediterranean is approximately located between 1200 and 2300 m and hosts the upper limits of Quercus ilex forests and the majority of Juniperus thurifera, mixed with xerophytes. The bioclimates are generally semi-arid with cold variants at these levels, with some features of the subhumid climate at their lower limits. Finally, the Oro-Mediterranean dominates high mountains, inhabited by xerophytes, the lower Oro-Mediterranean is approximately located between 1900 and 3700 m, while the average Oro-Mediterranean level is approximately located between 2800 and 3700 m (Figure 14).

Table 5. Detailed ecological characteristics of vegetation formations in the Geopark M’Goun.

Symbol	Dominant Species	Companion Species	Elevation	Bioclimatic Stage	Vegetation Zone	Tmin and Tmax	Precipitation	Substrate Type
F1	Quercus ilex, Anchusa azurea, Astragalus incanus	Bromus madritensis, Campanula filicaulis, Catananche caerulea	1100–1500	Semi-arid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean	0 °C, 32 °C	400–600 mm	Limestones
F2	Galium tricornicum, Quercus ilex, Anchusa azurea	Bromus madritensis, Medicago minima, Silene vulgaris	1100–1800	Semi-arid cold and sub-humid cold	Meso-Mediterranean Supra-Mediterranean	−3 °C, 28 °C	550–650 mm	Limestones
F3	Quercus ilex, Hordeum murinum, Asphodelus macrocarpus	Galium tricornicum, Romulea bulbocodium, Anchusa azurea	1100–1800	Semi-arid cold and sub-humid cold	Meso-Mediterranean Supra-Mediterranean	−3 °C, 30 °C	550–650 mm	Limestones
F4	Quercus ilex, Clematis cirrhosa, Echinops spinosissimus	Artemisia herba-alba, Juniperus phoenicea	1500–1800	Semi-arid, cold	Supra-Mediterranean	−3 °C, 30 °C	550–600 mm	Limestones
F5	Juniperus phoenicea, Anchusa azurea, Quercus ilex	Silene vulgaris, Avena fatua, Dactylis glomerata	1100–1500	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean	0 °C, 32 °C	600–650 mm	Limestones
F6	Juniperus phoenicea, Stipellula capensis, Chamaerops humilis	Atractylis cancellata, Euphorbia resinifera	544–1100	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Thermo- Mediterranean	5 °C, 34 °C	600–650 mm	Clays and sandstone
F7	Juniperus phoenicea, Pinus halepensis, Buxus balearica	Thymus algeriensis, Lactuca tenerrima, Genista scorpius	1400–1500	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean and	0 °C, 30 °C	550–650 mm	Clays and limestone conglomerates
F8	Pinus halepensis, Globularia nainii, Buxus balearica	Centaurea melitensis, Cistus creticus, Euphorbia niceensis	1400–1500	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean and	0 °C, 30 °C	550–650 mm	Clays and limestone
F9	Thymus zygis, Anarrhinum fruticosum, Globularia nainii	Arbutus unedo, Astragalus incanus, Ononis pusilla	1400–1500	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean	0 °C, 32 °C	600–650 mm	Limestones and rocky limestones
F10	Juniperus phoenicea, Xanthium spinosus, Ajuga iva	Capparis spinosa, Crambe filiformis, Nerium oleander	1500–1800	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean	0 °C, 32 °C	600–650 mm	Clays and sandstones
F11	Globularia nainii, Hirschfeldia incana, Lythrum junceum	Pinus halepensis, Polygala balansae, Teucrium polium	1500–1800	Semi-arid fresh and Sub-humid fresh	Meso-Mediterranean	0 °C, 32 °C	600–650 mm	Clays
F12	Euphorbia niceensis, Fraxinus angustifolia, Polycarpon tetraphyllum	Bellis annua, Lactuca tenerrima, Quercus ilex	1700–2350	Semi-arid cold and very cold	Supra-Mediterranean and Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	500–600 mm	Limestones
F13	Teucrium chamaedrys, Alyssum spinosum, Polycarpon tetraphyllum	Arenaria pungens, Bupleurum spinosus, Cerastium arvense	1800–2350	Semi-arid cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	400–450 mm	Limestones, marls, and dolomites
F14	Quercus ilex, Astragalus granatensis, Campanula filicaulis	Ononis spinosa, Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Teucrium chamaedrys	1700–2350	Semi-arid cold, very cold, and Sub-humid cold	Supra-Mediterranean and Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	600–650 mm	Limestones
F15	Cytisus balansae, Euphorbia nicaeensis, Alyssum spinosum	Hirschfeldia incana, Cirsium dyris, Coronilla minima	2200–2350	Semi-arid cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	400–600 mm	Limestones
F16	Artemisia herba-alba, Ormenis scariosa, Euphorbia niceensis	Sanguisorba minor, Alyssum spinosum, Bupleurum spinosus	2200–2350	Semi-arid cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	400–600 mm	Limestones
F17	Euphorbia niceensis, Ribes uva-crispa, Coronilla minima	Erinacea anthyllis, Alyssum serpyllifolium, Juniperus thurifera	2000–2350	Semi-arid cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	400–600 mm	Limestones
F18	Alyssum spinosum, Scorzonera caespitosa, Thymus pallidus	Arenaria pungens, Carduncellus atractyloides, Euphorbia niceensis	2200–2350	Semi-arid cold and very cold	Montane Mediterranean	−6 °C, 28 °C	400–600 mm	Limestones
F19	Alyssum spinosum, Bupleurum spinosum, Carduncellus atractyloides	Cytisus balansae, Erinacea anthyllis, Euphorbia niceensis	2350–2800	Sub-humid is extremely cold and Semi-arid extremely cold	Oro-Mediterranean	−9 °C, 24 °C	550–650 mm	Limestones
F20	Euphorbia niceensis, Alyssum spinosum, Erinacea anthyllis	Juniperus thurifera, Vella mairii, Ormenis scariosa	2350–2800	Sub-humid is extremely cold and Semi-arid is extremely cold	Oro-Mediterranean	−9 °C, 24 °C	550–650 mm	Limestones
F21	Arenaria pungens, Vella mairii, Alyssum spinosum	Erinacea anthyllis, Bupleurum spinosum, Cytisus balansae	2350–2800	Sub-humid is extremely cold and Semi-arid is extremely cold	Oro-Mediterranean	−9 °C, 24 °C	550–650 mm	Limestones

represents the Phytoecological synthesis of the main plant formation and species of the geopark M’Goun of the High Atlas of Morocco.

4. Discussion

4.1. Floristic Richness

This study covers an area of remarkable species diversity, with 565 species recorded in the sampled region. The most abundant family is Asteraceae (100 species), followed by Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Brassicaceae, and Caryophyllaceae. Gharnit et al. (2025) have demonstrated that the rangelands of the study area contain 509 species, while the most prominent botanical family is Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae [24]. In Morocco, based on a recent inventory, 155 families, 981 genera, 3913 species, and 426 subspecies of vascular plants are reported [20]. Regarding genera, Silene, with 68 species, Centaurea, Teucrium, Ononis, Euphorbia, Astragalus, Trifolium, and Linaria each have between 40 and 50 species [47]. The richest families are Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae; they total 1329 species. Five other families are also among the richest with more than 200 species (Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae, and Caryophyllaceae) and 100 species each (Apiaceae and Scrophulariaceae) [20]. High phylodiversity within the study area can be attributed to the fact that a single mountain may host a series of climatically distinct life zones over short elevational distances [47]. Furthermore, mountains offer a diverse array of habitats, including forests, grasslands, rocky outcrops, and wetlands [48]. Particularly in the High Atlas of Morocco, this region encompasses a diverse range of habitats, including forests, rangelands, grasslands, cliffs, and volcanic landscapes, resulting in a mosaic of dynamic ecosystems [7].

These species are organized into six groups as revealed by the CA plot. The main groups comprise Quercus ilex forests and their clearings, in subhumid areas of the region. Indeed, this tree is well adapted and dominates the subhumid climates in Morocco [49]. While Juniperus phoenicea and associated species form second group in a warm semi-arid climate, generally this plant in one of seriously affected species in the arid (and semi-arid) ecosystems of the Mediterranean [50]. In addition, heterogeneous groups, such as ecotones between Q. ilex and Juniperus phoenicea (F4, F5), and a transition zone between Quercus ilex, Juniperus phoenicea, and Pinus halepensis (F7) are located in the study area. Pinus halepensis forests (F8), and their clearings form a particular group, in the study area, these formations occupy the semi-arid to sub-humid cool bioclimate [51]. Juniperus thurifera formations associated with xerophytes occupy primarily semi-arid cold and subhumid. While extreme elevations represent the domain of spiny xerophytes of high mountains, characterized by species such as Arenaria pungens, Valla mairii, Alyssum spinosum, Erinacea Anthyllis, Bupleurum spinosum, Cytisus balansae, Euphorbia nicaeensis, and Euphorbia megatlantica. In fact, Juniperus thurifera (form 1.33% of the study area) and xerophyte cushions (6.84%) thrive at high elevations in semi-arid and subhumid [7].

The flora of the M’Goun Geopark faces numerous threats of degradation and extinction, primarily driven by uncontrolled development that leads to significant destruction of vegetation cover and its associated habitats. It should be noted that the M’Goun Geopark is constantly impacted by human activity, whether it be through grazing, agriculture, harvesting of medicinal plants, or tourism [24]. The effects of these activities on floral biodiversity are irreversible [23]. Furthermore, 21% of the local species are endemic, 50% species are endemic to Morocco, and 104 species are considered rare, very rare, or vulnerable. Strict endemic taxa are estimated at 951, representing 21% of Moroccan vascular plants [52]. The Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Fabaceae families are the richest in endemics, with 98, 77, and 63 species, respectively [46]. Morocco harbors 422 plant species listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List, of which 43 are endemic [53]. A total of 6% of species adapted to the geopark are listed in the IUCN Red List. The rarity rate is 18%, distributed as follows: 46 are extremely rare in Morocco, 24 are rare, and 3 are vulnerable. Morocco is home to 126 families with rare species, and hosts 2185 rare species and 634 rare subspecies [38]. The High Atlas consists of approximately 1916 plant species [54] and has been reported and identified by several authors as true biodiversity hotspots of the Mediterranean region with the most important endemism and rarity [46,55].

4.2. Phytoecology

Morocco presents a variety of climates due to the combined influence of several factors [56]. Two bioclimate zones are located in the area, these levels swap the localities each year in response to the recent climate anomalies. Generally, the semiarid with temperate variants occupy low elevation (lower limit), while its cold and very cold variants dominate, the high elevation along with the subhumid. The vegetation levels in the study area are Thermo-Mediterranean, Meso-Mediterranean, Supra-Mediterranean, Mountain Mediterranean, and Oro-Mediterranean. On the High Atlas Mountains, Defaut classifies the elevational zones as follows: Above 3708 m corresponds to the nival zone; 2800 m to 3708 m (+100 m) reflects upper oro-Mediterranean; 2350 m to 2800 m (+200 m) presents the lower Oro-Mediterranean; 2350 m to 1800 m hosts the mountain Mediterranean zone; 1500 m to 1800 m presents the Supra-Mediterranean zone; 1100 m to 1500 m represents the Meso-Mediterranean zone; while elevations bellow 1500 m are dominated by Thermo- and Infra-Mediterranean [57]. Generally, the Thermo-Mediterranean level hosts Carob, Olive–Mastic shrubland, and Mediterranean conifers; the Meso-Mediterranean contains sclerophyllous forest; while the Supra-Mediterranean hosts deciduous forest; the Mediterranean mountain is inhabited by Mediterranean mountain conifers (Black Pine, Cedar, Fir, etc.); and the Oro-Mediterranean encompasses thurifer junipers [14,58].

The Thermo-Mediterranean zone is the most widespread in Morocco, covering both large horizontal and vertical areas. It is also the most biodiverse. It stretches from sea level up to approximately 1000–1400 m, varying with latitude [45]. In addition, this level is characterized by Tetraclinis articulata, some Juniperus phoenicea, Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Quercus suber forests, Cupressus atlantica [59]. The Thermo-Mediterranean zone within the Geopark is characterized by summer temperatures between 36 and 36.12 °C, while most precipitation occurs during the winter months, totaling 500–569 mm. This zone generally occupies elevations between 661 and 1324 m within the Geopark, although variations may occur due to local conditions and topography. This level contains a rich and diverse flora, including a remarkable set of plant species: Pistacia atlantica, Ziziphus lotus, Tetraclinis articulata, Juniperus, phoenicea, Juniperus oxycedrus, Polygala balansae, Rhus pentaphylla, Cistus salviifolius, Teucrium fruticans, Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Chamaerops humilis, Pistacia lentiscus.

The Meso-Mediterranean contain Juniperus phoenicea, Pistacia lentiscus, Pinus halepensis, Tetraclinis articulata, and Quercus ilex [13]. Its elevational range fluctuates between approximately 900 and 1400 m in the Rif, and 1100 and 1500 m in the High Atlas. In addition, the holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia) forms at this level more or less open forest formations which become increasingly tall and dense with elevation [45]. The Meso-Mediterranean zone represents a transitional area between the Thermo-Mediterranean zone and more continental climates. It is characterized by a reduction in the seasonal contrasts observed in the Thermo-Mediterranean zone. Summers are less hot and dry compared to the Thermo-Mediterranean, with more frequent precipitation (500–550 mm). Winters are colder, with occasional frosts, and precipitation is distributed over a longer period but is distinguished by a lower diversity. Its elevational extension is approximately between 522 and 2067 m. The characteristic bioclimates of this level are semi-arid to subhumid, with essentially cool variants. Frosts are relatively frequent. This level is home to a specific flora, of which the dominant species is Holm oak (Quercus ilex); this species finds its optimal development at this level. Ozenda (1975) indicates that this level encompasses also Cork oak (Quercus suber) forming a few individuals inside the holm oak domains. Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), Wild olive tree (Olea europaea) Algerian thuya (Tetraclinis articulata) Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua) Mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus) Dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis). The Meso-Mediterranean zone is characterized by having a complex cover formed by Q. callipinos, Qu. suber, pines, and other conifers [13].

The Supra-Mediterranean is dominated by sclerophyllous oak forests [45]. Within the Geopark, it occupies elevations ranging from 1017 to 1800 m, characterized by cooler and wetter climatic conditions. Maximum temperatures are generally cooler than lower elevations with more pronounced thermal amplitudes. Precipitation is more abundant and distributed over a longer period of the year, averaging between 400 and 450 mm. This level corresponds to deciduous oak forests and mixed deciduous–coniferous formations. The characteristic bioclimates of this level in the study area are of a semi-arid type to subhumid, with essentially cool variants. Snow precipitations are frequent. Holm oak (Quercus ilex) forests dominate the lower parts of this level, along with Arbutus unedo, Cistus creticus, and Thymus zygis. In the Mediterranean, this belt dominates in high mountains between 800 and 1700 m.a.s.l., occupied by pine trees accompanied by some other conifers, mixed temperate forests of conifers, oaks (Quercus pyrenaica, Quercus pubescens), strawberry trees (Arbutus unedo, Arbutus andrachne) and a prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) [60]. In Morocco, this level lies between approximately 1400 and 1800 m and is characterized by sclerophyllous oak forests (Quercus rotundifolia, Quercus suber) in relatively dry areas, deciduous oak forests (Quercus faginea, Quercus canariensis, Quercus pyrenaica) in humid areas, and coniferous formations (Cedrus atlantica, Abies maroccana) in humid areas where the thermal factor eliminates deciduous broadleaves at higher elevations [45]. The Supra-Meditterranean zone is typified by deciduous oak forests, along with Ostrya and other broad-leaved trees [13].

Mountain Mediterranean highlights the transition between the milder Mediterranean climates of the plains and the harsher mountain climates at higher elevations. elevations typically range between 1800 and 2350 m but can vary depending on topography and site features (Aspect, slope, wind, and climate). Among the major forest species, we observe Quercus rotundifolia and Juniperus thurifera. This level is found only in the high mountains of Morocco. It is the high-elevation forest level of the cold and very cold variants of the subhumid, humid, and perhumid bioclimates, exceptionally semi-arid. The base of the belt level reaches 2000 m in the High Atlas, while its ceiling reaches 2600 m [45].

Oro-Mediterranean is the culminating vegetation stage, observed only on the highest peaks of the Geopark. Its elevational limits are difficult to determine precisely. Pre-forest groups disappear giving way to cushion-forming xerophytic groups which reach 3700 m. The lower arboreal part corresponds to the lower Oro-Mediterranean. We can estimate that very cold subhumid and extremely cold and semi-arid bioclimates characterize these elevational levels. Certain pre-forest series of the lower Oro-Mediterranean, the Juniperus thurifera series, and cushion-forming xerophytes extend over the highest peaks of the Geopark, and under extremely cold semi-arid and subhumid sub-bioclimates. This belt occurs around 2300 m in the Middle Atlas and 2600 m in the High Atlas. In turn, the pre-forest formations disappear between 2800 and 3200 m, making way for xerophytes, which can reach elevations of between 3600 and 3800 m [45]. The thorny xerophytes dominate high elevations in the areas of Ait Boulli, Ait Bouguemmez, Zauit Ahansal, and Anergui. These species include Bupleurum spinosum or Bupleurum atlanticum, Alyssum spinosum, Erinacea Anthyllis, Cytisus Balansae or Cytisus purgans, Ormenis scariosa, and Arenaria pungens. It begins at an elevation from 2000 to 3200 m and grows generally on a calcareous substrate.

The soil nature in the area is generally limestones associated with dolomite or marls and the clays associated with sandstones [23,24]. Our study confirms that the Quercus ilex formations are typically found on limestone substrates. Pinus halepensis occupies a wider range of substrates, including limestone, clays, and conglomerates. Juniperus phoenicea is more commonly associated with clays and sandstones. Xerophytic species are often found in association with Juniperus thurifera and tend to inhabit limestone substrates. Furthermore, the region is characterized by volcanic soils generally basaltic [19].

Figure 15 shows the general aspects of some vegetal formation in the area. This region showcases the remarkable biodiversity of the High Atlas ecosystems, yet it is crucial to underscore that many species within these ecosystems are facing significant degradation and threats. This biodiversity decline is further exacerbated by the impacts of climate change. The local population heavily relies on these natural resources for their livelihoods, utilizing them for wood, rangelands, and livestock forage. Therefore, these forests are vital for maintaining biodiversity and supporting sustainable development policies. As a result, the protection and conservation of these forests are of paramount importance to avoid the severe consequences of their loss. Indeed, the loss of biodiversity may lead to a decrease in ecosystems’ climate resilience, accelerating the effects of climate change [61], and this loss reduces the stability of an ecosystem [62]. In addition, biodiversity loss may impact society, economy, health, food environment, societal structures, rural life, food security and livelihoods, and resilience of rural communities profoundly [63]. Several crucial conservation measures are necessary to safeguard the flora of the M’Goun Geopark. These include implementing rigorous investigations and comprehensive ecosystem assessments; establishing a well-defined network of protected areas, carefully selected based on specific criteria (diversity and activities); improving social conditions and local infrastructure to alleviate pressure on natural resources; fostering community engagement through awareness campaigns and active participation in conservation efforts; and utilizing the funding from this study as a foundation for ecosystem restoration and remediation initiatives.

5. Conclusions

The Moroccan flora exhibits exceptional diversity, a fact underscored by the outstanding species richness found in Geopark M’Goun and the High Atlas Mountains. The region’s vegetation cover comprises a mosaic of habitats, including holm oak, Phoenician juniper, Tetraclinis, and juniper thurifera. Moreover, these species form communities adapted to a wide range of ecological conditions, encompassing variations in temperature, precipitation, soil type, elevation, and cover nature.

The status of the majority of species remains unknown, and their true levels of rarity and the threats they face are unclear. This study identifies species that urgently require management and conservation policies, particularly in the context of increasing concerns about climate change. Rising temperatures, declining precipitation, and unprecedented heatwaves are exacerbating these threats. These factors, combined with destructive human activities such as uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources, particularly wood and charcoal production, and extensive overgrazing, have a significant impact. To mitigate these challenges, it is imperative to implement urgent conservation measures for threatened species and effective management strategies for the forests of the High Atlas of Morocco.