Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) as a Maritime Transportation Fuel
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Hydrogen Storage by NaBH4
2.1. NaBH4 Storage
2.2. Hydrogen Release by Hydrolysis
3. NaBH4 and Maritime Transportation
4. Evaluation of NaBH4 H2 Storage Performance
4.1. Handling of NaBH4 (Storage Conditions)
4.2. Safety
4.3. Purity of H2
4.4. Storage Capacity
4.5. Efficiency and Cost
4.6. Maturity
4.7. Literature Survey
4.8. Final Evaluation
5. Conclusions
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- Hydrogen coming from sodium borohydride hydrolysis is humid and this is favorable for fuel cell membrane and also favorable for internal combustion engines thanks to autoignition preventation and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission reduction potential. The amount of “NOx emission reduction potential” of NaBH4 should be revealed by future studies. Studies are needed that combine sodium borohydride and internal combustion engine.
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- High (up to 1000 bar) and low-pressure hydrogen can be obtained via NaBH4 hydrolysis. Flexibility of liberated hydrogen pressure is important. Low-pressure hydrogen may be fed to inlet a manifold of existing internal combustion engines. Low-pressure and low-temperature storage by NaBH4 is critical and useful for safety and for global warming since it may reduce the leakage of hydrogen, which causes global warming. Instead, high-pressure hydrogen may be obtained as well.
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- The sodium borohydride hydrogen storage method has its own characteristics. Whereas fuel availability, fuel recyclability, mild storage conditions, and thus relative safety, exothermicity of reaction, pressure flexibility of hydrolysis, and high H2 purity from the reactor can be listed as advantages of NaBH4, moisture sensitivity of NaBH4, corrosive environment, and thus material issues, high costs of NaBH4 and catalysts, catalyst deactivation, regeneration requirement, and practical/technical implementation issues can be listed as disadvantages/challenges.
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- The major advantage of the marine environment for NaBH4 is water availability, contrary to aerial/road vehicles. The water required for the reactor does not need to be carried by the ship for the entire journey. Moreover, direct use of seawater in the reaction (with or without catalyst) and direct use of seawater in the cooling may improve and simplify the system and need further investigations. In addition to these, decomposition of NaBH4-seawater solution with high temperature exhaust and reuse of obtained gas mixture in internal combustion engines may be attractive for the future.
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- Major obstacles to the use of sodium borohydride as a marine fuel today are its regeneration problem, cost, and the lack of durable and commercialized reactor prototypes. Once these obstacles are resolved, it will take its place among marine fuels.
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
°C | Celsius | L | Liter |
Al | Aluminium | LOHC | Liquid organic hydrogen carrier |
B | Boron | MgCl2 | Magnesium chloride |
C7H8 | Toluene | MgH2 | Magnesium Hydride |
CFRP | Carbon fiber reinforced plastic | NH3 | Ammonia |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide | NaOH | Sodium hydroxide |
C12H26 | Diesel | NaBO2 | Sodium metaborate |
CH3OH | Methanol | NaBH4 | Sodium Borohydride |
FC | Fuel cell | NOx | Nitrogen oxide |
GHG | Greenhouse gases | NaAlH4 | Sodium aluminium hydride |
g | Gramme | NH3BH3 | Ammonia borane |
H2 | Hydrogen | NaCl | Sodium chloride |
h | Hour | Na2SO4 | Sodium sulfate |
H2O | Water | Na | Sodium |
ICE | Internal combustion engine | O | Oxygen |
IMO | International Maritime Organization | PEMFC | Proton exchange membrane fuel cell |
kg | Kilogramme | PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene |
KOH | Potassium hydroxide | TRL | Technology readiness level |
kW | KiloWatt | t | Time |
KBH4 | Potassium tetrahydroborate | T | Temperature |
K | Kelvin | Wh | Watthour |
wt | Weight |
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Year | Authors | Scope | Results |
---|---|---|---|
2016 | M. Nazin [63] | Power generator for unmanned undersea vehicles based on PEMFC and Aluminium (Al)-NaBH4 using generator was investigated. | Seawater shows catalytic effect on hydrolysis reaction. Stainless steel 304 and polyethylene were found as suitable materials for storage of NaBH4 slurries in the presence of alkaline stabilizer. |
2019 | F. M. Van Nievelt [49] | Technical design and transient behavior of the powertrain of sailing passenger vessel were analyzed for NaBH4 use. | Dry powder storage was found as suitable for compactness. Until 200 h of the trips, the NaBH4 system volume was found as comparable to the diesel fuel system volume. |
2019 | B. T. W. Mestemaker et al. [50] | Emission reduction methods were assessed according to shipbuilders’ perspective. | In a small part of the study, sodium borohydride was mentioned, and it was emphasized that it is in the infancy stage. |
2020 | T. J. van der Maas [51] | “What is the commercial and operational most promising alternative marine fuel for coastal and inland shipping in 2030 and beyond in order to decarbonise the Amsterdam port?” The question was attempted to be answered, among the seven alternatives. | The most promising alternative for 2030 is selected as biodiesel. Sodium borohydride was selected as 4th. NaBH4 will be the fuel of the Amsterdam port authority vessel. NaBH4 was selected as the safest fuel. NaBH4 will be mature and economical towards 2040 and beyond. |
2020 | B. Diesveld and E. De Maeyer [52] | Different fuels and fuel cell types were assessed based on storage type, density, safety, emissions, and maturity via decision-making. | Sodium borohydride was mentioned as safe and emission free fuel with its flash point is higher than 60 °C and CO2 free structure. |
2020 | D. Lensing [53] | Possibilities and limitations, and integration of NaBH4 system into maritime application, reactor design, correct sizing of components, energy management and comparison with other zero emission alternatives were evaluated for Port of Amsterdam pilot vessel. | Hydrogen storage capacity increased from 2.65% to 4.38% by weight with the utilization of seawater instead of onboard water storage. This is the superiority of the maritime transportation regarding NaBH4 hydrogen storage. |
2021 | L. Van Hoecke et al. [152] | Different aspects/challenges of hydrogen for maritime use are reviewed and discussed. | The major challenge of the hydrogen uses in maritime was mentioned as storage of hydrogen and the development of bunkering infrastructure. Proper reactor development and bunkering difficulties due to sensitivity of solid hydrogen carriers to moisture was referred. |
2021 | IEA [153] | A comprehensive report about hydrogen uses in maritime was submitted, including valuable information about sodium borohydride. | The NaBH4 powered ship project was introduced and it was mentioned that SolidHydrogen (a Dutch company) started to industrialize the concept. |
2022 | A. Düll et al. [154] | Performance evaluation and feasibility of potassium tetrahydroborate (KBH4) as a fuel for inland-waterway cargo vessel is evaluated. | Overall weight of the H2 release and power system is 1.4 wt% and overall volume is 0.8 vol% of the overall cargo capacity. With easy handling and GHG free application, potential of KBH4 for the maritime was highlighted, but efficient regeneration of spent fuel is required. |
2023 | A. Ibrahim et al. [94] | Export costs (including shipping) of different H2 carriers were analyzed. | Chemical compression of hydrogen above 1000 bar was demonstrated by hydrolysis of NaBH4. NaBH4 regeneration with renewable energy may be cost competitive with other hydrogen carriers. |
2023 | Rheenen et al. [132] | A total of 15 different hydrogen carriers were evaluated for maritime. | Potential of the borohydrides was mentioned with their safety, high TRL, and well-known dehydrogenation process. High volumetric energy density of NaBH4 system can be further increased by removing H2O in the spent fuel. |
Fuel | Reaction | System | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Advantages | Disadvantages | Advantages | Disadvantages | Advantages | Disadvantages |
Availability | Moisture sensitivity | Mild conditions | Catalyst deactivation | Mild conditions | Technical implementation challenges |
Mild storage conditions | Cost | Safe | Alkaline/acidic media | Safe | Cost |
Relatively stable | Humid H2 | Byproduct crystallization | Storage capacity | Byproduct weight/volume | |
Safe | Environmental | Pure H2 | Discharge of byproducts | ||
Recyclability | Efficient | Regeneration of byproducts | |||
Exothermic | |||||
Pressurized H2 availability |
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Kaya, C. Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) as a Maritime Transportation Fuel. Hydrogen 2024, 5, 540-558. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030030
Kaya C. Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) as a Maritime Transportation Fuel. Hydrogen. 2024; 5(3):540-558. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030030
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaya, Cenk. 2024. "Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) as a Maritime Transportation Fuel" Hydrogen 5, no. 3: 540-558. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030030