Perspective for the Safe and High-Efficiency Storage of Liquid Hydrogen: Thermal Behaviors and Insulation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Thermal Behaviors during the No-Vented Storage of Liquid Hydrogen
2.1. Overview of Experimental Investigation
Exp. | Tank Shape | Volume (m3) | Time (s, h) | Liquid Fill Ratio (%)/Heat Flux (W/m2) (a) | Measurement Content | Accuracies |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[39] | Spherical | 208 | 38 h | 54.2%, 84.7%/1.9 |
| ±1.38 kPa ±0.83 K |
[33,40] | Spherical | 0.00637; 0.09195 | 222–2720 s | 31.6–79.8%/53–202 |
| ±13.8 kPa ±0.5 K |
[34,41] | Spherical | 4.95 | 12–20 h | 29–83%/0.35–3.5 |
| ±0.01 kPa ±0.3 K |
[42,43] | Cylindrical | 18.09 | 6.9–18.37 h | 25–90%/0.526–1.514 (b) |
| ±0.13 kPa |
[44,45] | Cylindrical | 0.02 | 1.75 h | 14%/14.8 |
| − |
[46] | Cylindrical | 31.1 | 0.53–2.28 h | 25–70%/63.52–164.76 (c) |
| ±0.69 kPa ±1 K |
2.2. Status of Theoretical Investigation
Model | Classification | Node (Cell) Number | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|---|
TEM | - | 1 | A clear description of the no-vented storage process in thermodynamics | Assuming no temperature difference existed between vapor and liquid phases |
NTEM | SEM [48] | 2 | Estimation of the maximum self-pressurization rate | The temperature of the liquid phase is regarded as a constant |
TMZM [27,49,50,51] | 3 | Incorporating the temperature difference between vapor and liquid phases and interfacial mass transfer | Lack of consideration of temperature stratification in the vapor and liquid | |
TSM [52,53] | 3~5 | Incorporating the boundary layer zone and thermal stratification in the liquid | Lack of consideration of temperature stratification in the vapor | |
TMNM [54,55] | ≥4 | Discretization of vapor, liquid, and boundary layer zone with more nodes | Simplification of modeling flow fields | |
CFD model [56,57] | ≥5000 | Multi-scale and multi-dimensional description of thermal behaviors for no-vented storage of LH2 | Time-consuming for thermal design and prediction; The selection of some sub-models remains a disagreement |
2.3. Perspectives and Recommendations for Thermal Behaviors
2.3.1. Long-Term Tests to Observe Transient Thermal Behaviors
2.3.2. Mechanism of Vapor–Liquid Phase Change in Liquid Hydrogen Tanks
2.3.3. Effect of Temperature Stratification on Self-Pressurization Rate
2.3.4. Effect of Free Convection Flows Driven by Buoyancy Force on Self-Pressurization Rate
3. Thermal Insulation for the No-Vented Liquid Hydrogen Storage
3.1. Typical Thermal Insulation Forms and Testing Method for LH2 Storage
Insulation Forms | Advantages | Disadvantages | Performance |
---|---|---|---|
Foam-outside |
|
| >0.01 W/(m·K) |
Foam-inside |
|
| - |
Aerogel |
|
| 2 × 10−3~1.4 × 10−2 W/(m·K) at 185 K [69] |
Perlite |
|
| 1 × 10−3~5 × 10−2 W/(m·K) |
Glass bubbles/Hollow glass microspheres |
|
| 2 × 10−4~1 × 10−3 W/(m·K) |
Multi-layer insulation |
|
| 1 × 10−5~5 × 10−4 W/(m·K) [70] |
3.2. Perspectives and Recommendations for Thermal Insulations
3.2.1. Alternative Testing Methods for Thermal Insulations at Liquid Hydrogen Temperatures
3.2.2. Measurement of Transient Heat Leak at Liquid Hydrogen Temperatures
3.2.3. Development of High-Performance Thermal Insulation for Protecting LH2 Tanks
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Wang, H.; Gao, Y.; Wang, B.; Pan, Q.; Gan, Z. Perspective for the Safe and High-Efficiency Storage of Liquid Hydrogen: Thermal Behaviors and Insulation. Hydrogen 2024, 5, 559-573. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030031
Wang H, Gao Y, Wang B, Pan Q, Gan Z. Perspective for the Safe and High-Efficiency Storage of Liquid Hydrogen: Thermal Behaviors and Insulation. Hydrogen. 2024; 5(3):559-573. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030031
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Haoren, Yunfei Gao, Bo Wang, Quanwen Pan, and Zhihua Gan. 2024. "Perspective for the Safe and High-Efficiency Storage of Liquid Hydrogen: Thermal Behaviors and Insulation" Hydrogen 5, no. 3: 559-573. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030031