Advancing Hydrogen Gas Utilization in Industrial Boilers: Impacts on Critical Boiler Components, Mitigation Measures, and Future Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To provide a fundamental understanding of the HE and HTHA phenomena and their potential occurrences in hydrogen-fuel boilers.
- To highlight mitigation measures, hydrogen-compatible materials, and barrier coatings that are feasible under in-service hydrogen boiler operations.
- To discuss advanced computational and data-driven approaches for the simulation and prediction of hydrogen-assisted damages in critical boiler components under varying operational conditions.
- To provide future research directions to guide the advancement of H2 use in industrial boiler operations.
2. Adverse Impacts of the Industrial Use of H2 in Boiler Operation
2.1. Hydrogen Damage and Simultaneous Embrittlement
2.1.1. Theoretical Modeling of the HE Phenomenon
HPT Model
HESIV Model
HEDE Model
HELP Model
AIDE Model
Potential Gaps in Theoretical Modeling of HE
2.2. HTHA under Higher-Temperature H2 Conditions
2.2.1. Factors Influencing HTHA Damages
Temperature
Pressure
Exposure Time
Stress
Material Composition
3. General Mitigation Measures for Hydrogen-Induced Damages
3.1. Mitigation Measures to Improve the HE Resistance of Materials
3.2. Mitigation Measures to Improve the HTHA Resistance of Materials
3.3. The Importance of Controlling HE and HTHA under Different Operational Contexts
4. Material Selection of Hydrogen-Compatible Materials
4.1. Technical Databases, Standards, and Charts for Selecting Hydrogen-Compatible Materials
4.2. General Material Selection of Hydrogen-Compatible Materials
The Emergence of High-Entropy Alloys
4.3. Nelson Curves for Material Selection
Enhancement of Nelson Curves to Mitigate HTHA Damages
4.4. Defining the HEE Index for Evaluating Material Susceptibility to Hydrogen-Induced Damages
4.5. Defining a Hydrogen Safety Factor in Material Selection Studies
4.6. Hydrogen Permeation Barriers
4.7. Implementation of General Mitigation Measures in an Industrial Context
5. Experimental and Computational Modeling of Hydrogen-Induced Damages
5.1. Experimental Investigation of Hydrogen-Induced Damages
5.1.1. Experimental Investigation of Hydrogen Damage in Plain Carbon Steels
5.1.2. Challenges Associated with Experimental Modeling of Hydrogen-Induced Damages
5.2. Emerging Computational Models for Simulating Hydrogen-Induced Damages
5.3. Data-Driven Approaches for the Prediction of Material Susceptibility and Compatibility
Limitations of Data-Driven Approaches
6. Conclusions and Future Studies
6.1. Conclusions
- Over the years, the HE and HTHA phenomena have been complex damage mechanisms to understand and daunting research hurdles for material designers and engineers. Nonetheless, significant experimental, theoretical, and computational advancements have been made to substantially bridge these gaps. These advancements have yielded satisfactory accuracy in characterizing hydrogen diffusion into materials and assessing the subsequent effects of hydrogen-assisted damage. Nevertheless, significant challenges remain as the acceptance of the most accurate theoretical model for driving the HE mechanism in materials continues to be a major point of debate among experts. Establishing a standard theoretical model for defining HE manifestations could enhance the precision of numerical modeling and simulations of hydrogen-assisted fractures, thereby supporting the development of novel hydrogen-specific materials and components.
- To reduce the occurrence of HE and HTHA in boiler components, general mitigation measures that could be explored include proper thermomechanical treatments, the use of HPBs, the addition of inhibitors to reduce H2 purity, proper weld procedures and post-heat treatments, the selection of proper operating temperatures and pressures, the introduction and reduction of alloying elements, and the proper selection of materials. In an industrial context, visual and advanced inspection procedures using sophisticated inspection techniques such as LPT, PAUT, SWUT, and MPT can also be utilized for rapid failure detection to inform decisions to prevent potential equipment failure. However, when exploring mitigation measures, it is important to consider the specific operational contexts of the critical components and the potential hydrogen-induced damage mechanisms (HE or HTHA) that may affect them.
- Numerous studies and technical references have identified several prominent metals and metallic alloys, such as aluminum, austenitic stainless steel alloys, and superalloys, as promising candidates for H2 boiler applications. In particular, superalloys such as single-crystal PWA 1480E, Inconel 625, and Hastelloy X exhibit promising HE-resistant capabilities under high-pressure, high-temperature H2 conditions. However, the material selection for both traditional and emerging alloys, such as BCC HEAs, must be validated through rigorous fracture mechanics analysis to establish hydrogen safety factors and confirm their suitability as hydrogen-compatible materials for elevated hydrogen boiler operations.
- Metallurgically bonded austenitic stainless steel liners and dielectrics, such as oxides, carbides, and nitrides, have been considered promising candidates for HPB coating applications. Notably, the TiAlN HPBs exhibit the most promising HPB coating characteristics, with permeabilities on the order of 10−18 mols−1m−1()−1. Therefore, TiAlN coatings can be further explored for use in coating boiler components. However, extensive investigation of these coatings beyond laboratory-scale conditions would be valuable for validating their effectiveness in industrial hydrogen boiler operations.
- Emerging numerical and computational models, such as MD and phase-field models, have proven to be efficient tools for modeling and predicting HE, HTHA, and complex crack morphologies in materials subjected to H2 conditions. In particular, phase-field modeling of hydrogen-assisted fracture or hydrogen-assisted fatigue crack growth can allow sophisticated virtual testing of hydrogen-specific critical boiler components. In the future, computational modeling of hydrogen-assisted damage in hydrogen boiler materials can assist in: (1) confident validation of material selection studies; (2) informing major material development decisions of hydrogen-specific engineering components; and (3) mapping out safe regimes of operations for materials working under elevated H2 boiler conditions to ensure good performance.
- Data-driven machine learning (ML) models, such as DTC, have shown significant potential for the rapid prediction of material susceptibility to hydrogen-induced damage and their compatibility with H2 under specific loading conditions. These models were validated against experimental and theoretical studies and demonstrated remarkable agreement with the observed data. However, limitations such as small datasets and a lack of consistent, standardized databases can significantly impact the prediction accuracy and validation of these models in a practical context. In the future, the development of more sophisticated ML algorithms and the creation of exhaustive material testing databases using advanced computational modeling can offer valuable insights into the design of novel, advanced hydrogen-compatible materials and infrastructure for H2 boiler operation.
6.2. Future Research Roadmap
- Implementation of hydrogen-specific standards and codes for rigorous fracture mechanics investigations into the feasibility of traditional alloys, superalloys, and novel materials, such as BCC HEAs, for the design of hydrogen-specific boiler components.
- Extensive investigations into the viability of HPBs and liners on critical boiler components under actual H2 conditions beyond laboratory-scale testing.
- Employing phase-field modeling to conduct rigorous virtual testing of hydrogen-specific components to assess their suitability for specific H2 conditions and industrial-scale applications. Additionally, these models should be employed to design safe operational regimes for conventional components and old boiler infrastructures.
- Development of robust ML algorithms and standardized, extensive mechanical testing databases to ensure remarkable prediction accuracy of a material’s susceptibility to hydrogen-induced damages and its compatibility with H2. As previously mentioned, phase-field modeling of hydrogen-assisted fracture and fatigue crack growth enables efficient and cost-effective numerical testing, extending beyond laboratory-scale conditions. Thus, phase-field modeling can be instrumental in developing a comprehensive, standardized ML database. This approach can guide industrial decision-making in selecting materials and designing components specifically for hydrogen-fuel boilers.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature, Subscripts, Superscripts, Acronyms, and Abbreviations
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
H2 | Hydrogen gas |
HENG | Hydrogen-enriched natural gas |
CH4 | Methane |
kg | Kilogram |
MJ | Megajoules |
kWh | Kilowatt-hours |
LPG | Liquified petroleum gas |
RFG | Reformulated gasoline |
HE | Hydrogen embrittlement |
HTHA | High-temperature hydrogen attack |
AHSS | Advanced high-strength steel |
HIC | Hydrogen-induced cracking |
HPT | Hydrogen pressure theory |
HEDE | Hydrogen-enhanced decohesion |
HELP | Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity |
HESIV | Hydrogen-enhanced strain-induced vacancies |
AIDE | Absorption-induced dislocation emission theory |
HRE | Hydrogen reaction embrittlement |
N2O | Nitrous oxide |
O2 | Oxygen |
CO | Carbon monoxide |
PWHT’ed | Post-weld heat treated |
PWHT | Post-weld heat treatment |
API RP | American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice |
HAT | Hydrogen attack tendency |
HAZ | Heat-affected zone |
NDE | Non-destructive examination |
NASA | National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
ASME | American Society of Mechanical Engineers |
BPVC | Boiler and pressure vessel codes |
HEAs | High-entropy alloys |
BCC | Body-centered cubic |
FCC | Face-centered cubic |
HEE | Hydrogen environment embrittlement |
NTS | Notched tensile strength |
RA | Reduction in area |
EL | Elongation |
RNTS | Notched tensile strength ratio |
RRA | Reduction in area ratio |
ANSI | American National Standard Institute |
CHMCI | Compressed Hydrogen Materials Compatibility |
SBCs | Surface barrier coatings |
TBCs | Thermal barrier coatings |
HPBs | Hydrogen permeation barriers |
Al2O3 | Aluminum oxide |
Cr2O3 | Chromium oxide |
Er2O3 | Erbium oxide |
PRF | Permeation reduction factor |
BN | Boron nitride |
TiN | Titanium nitride |
SiN | Silicon nitride |
TiC | Titanium carbide |
SiC | Silicon carbide |
Ds | Substrate diameter |
Df | Film diameter |
Ps | Substrate permeability value |
Pf | Film permeability value |
HIAD | Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database |
LPT | Liquid penetrant testing |
PAUT | Phased array ultrasonic testing |
SWUT | Shear wave ultrasonic testing |
MPT | Magnetic particle testing |
TDS | Thermal desorption spectroscopy |
SEM | Scanning electron microscopy |
EDS | Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy |
AAS | Atomic absorption spectroscopy |
Z–R | Zimmermann–Reinhardt |
AHSS | Advanced high-strength steel |
TWIP | Twinning-induced plasticity |
TRIP | Transformation-induced plasticity |
DFT | Density functional theory |
MD | Molecular dynamic |
FEA | Finite element analysis |
UEL | User element |
UMAT | User material |
Phase-field parameter | |
C0 | Initial hydrogen concentration |
C | Hydrogen concentration |
a | Crack size |
a0 | Initial crack size |
K | Stress intensity factor |
N | Fatigue cycle |
R | Loading ratio |
f | Loading frequency |
Fe3C | Iron carbide |
APT | Atomic probe tomography |
ML | Machine learning |
SVM | Support vector machine |
PAG | Prior austenite grain |
XGBoost | Extreme gradient boosting |
ANN | Artificial neural network |
GB | Gradient boosting |
DTC | Decision tree classifier |
RF | Random Forest |
LR | Linear regression |
BR | Bayesian regression |
PCC | Pearson’s correlation coefficient |
MIC | Maximum information coefficient |
R2 | Coefficient of determination |
AdaBoost | Adaptive Boosting |
CatBoost | Categorical Boosting |
S | Solubility |
p(H2) | Hydrogen partial pressure |
AI | Artificial intelligence |
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Property | CH4 | H2 |
---|---|---|
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (kg) | 17.2 | 34.3 |
Combustible range (%) | 5–15 | 6.7–36.0 |
Flame temperature (°C) | 1914 | 2207 |
Minimum spark ignition energy (mJ) | 0.30 | 0.017 |
Autoignition temperature (°C) | 600 | 585 |
Fuel | Energy Content [MJ/kg] | |
---|---|---|
Lower Heating Value | Higher Heating Value | |
Gaseous hydrogen | 119.96 | 141.88 |
Liquid hydrogen | 120.04 | 141.77 |
Natural gas | 47.13 | 52.21 |
Liquified natural gas | 48.62 | 55.19 |
Still gas | 46.89 | 50.94 |
Crude oil | 42.68 | 45.93 |
Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) | 46.60 | 50.14 |
Conventional gasoline | 43.44 | 46.52 |
Reformulated or Low-sulfur gasoline (RFG) | 42.35 | 45.42 |
Conventional diesel | 42.78 | 45.76 |
Low-sulfur diesel | 42.60 | 45.56 |
Coal (wet basis) | 22.73 | 23.96 |
Bituminous coal (wet basis) | 26.12 | 27.26 |
Coking coal (wet basis) | 28.60 | 29.86 |
Methanol | 20.09 | 22.88 |
Ethanol | 26.95 | 29.84 |
Model | Key Features | Strengths | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
HPT | Hydrogen atoms accumulate at defect sites, forming molecular hydrogen; which leads to increased local pressure and potential cracking. | Provides a clear mechanism for hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) in non-austenitic steels. | Limited to non-austenitic steels; less applicable to other metal classes; questionable accuracy in general HE characterization. |
HESIV | Hydrogen increases vacancy density, causing clusters that limit dislocation mobility and lead to premature fracture. | Highlights the role of vacancies in HE; explains premature fractures under strain. | Focuses on vacancy behavior, which might not capture all aspects of HE, particularly in different metal types. |
HEDE | Hydrogen reduces interatomic strength, leading to intergranular fractures. | Provides insight into hydrogen-induced intergranular fracture and interface decohesion; Simple to apply. | Difficulty in measuring cohesive forces; may oversimplify the HE phenomenon. |
HELP | Hydrogen facilitates dislocation motion; dislocation buildup at the crack tip leads to brittle fractures. | Widely accepted model; explains hydrogen-induced plastic deformation and brittle fracture. | Highly dependent on microstructure and stress intensity; limited by hydrogen clustering assumptions. |
AIDE | Hydrogen adsorption weakens interatomic bonds near crack tips; combines elements of HEDE and HELP. | Integrates aspects of both decohesion and dislocation-based models, providing a more comprehensive view. | Complex mechanism; it may require more experimental validation to fully capture its applicability. |
Dielectrics | PRF | Ds (mm) | Df m) | Ps ×10−11molH2 )−1 | Pf ×10−11molH2 )−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al2O3 | 1000 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.30 | 25.9 |
Cr2O3 | 1000 | 1.6 | 10 1 | 0.017 | 0.72 1 |
Cr2O3/Al2O | 3500 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.30 | 7.41 |
Er2O3 | 1000 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.30 | 25.9 |
Er2O3 | 1000 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 1.30 | 33.7 |
SiO2 | 1 | 0.15 | 0.2 | 0.13 | 1711 |
BN | 100 | 0.1 | 1.5 | 0.13 | 193 |
TiN | 100 | 0.1 | 1.5 | 0.13 | 193 |
TiN | 1100 | 0.35 | 1.7 | 0.13 | 5.7 |
TiN | 1000 | 0.1 | 1.7 | 0.13 | 21.8 |
TiAlN | 6800 | 0.35 | 1.7 | 0.13 | 0.92 |
TiAlN | 20,000 | 0.5 | 5 | 1.30 | 6.5 |
SiN | 2000 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.30 | 6.5 |
WN | 38 | 0.5 | 2.3 | 1.30 | 1570 |
CrWN | 100 | 0.5 | 4.4 | 1.30 | 1140 |
CrN | 117 | 0.5 | 2.6 | 1.30 | 576 |
Cr2N | 286 | 0.5 | 2.2 | 1.30 | 241 |
ALCrN | 350 | 0.5 | 4.5 | 1.30 | 333 |
ZrN | 4600 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 1.30 | 7.9 |
TiC | 10 | 0.1 | 1 | 0.27 | 2750 |
TiN+TiC | 100 | 0.5 | 1 + 0.25 | 1.30 | 324 |
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Honu, E.; Guo, S.; Rahman, S.; Zeng, C.; Mensah, P. Advancing Hydrogen Gas Utilization in Industrial Boilers: Impacts on Critical Boiler Components, Mitigation Measures, and Future Perspectives. Hydrogen 2024, 5, 574-623. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030032
Honu E, Guo S, Rahman S, Zeng C, Mensah P. Advancing Hydrogen Gas Utilization in Industrial Boilers: Impacts on Critical Boiler Components, Mitigation Measures, and Future Perspectives. Hydrogen. 2024; 5(3):574-623. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030032
Chicago/Turabian StyleHonu, Edem, Shengmin Guo, Shafiqur Rahman, Congyuan Zeng, and Patrick Mensah. 2024. "Advancing Hydrogen Gas Utilization in Industrial Boilers: Impacts on Critical Boiler Components, Mitigation Measures, and Future Perspectives" Hydrogen 5, no. 3: 574-623. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen5030032