Levels of Arsenic in Soil, Irrigation Water, and Vegetables in Sites of Delhi Nearby Yamuna Region †
Department of Forensic Science, Sharda School of Allied Health Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, India
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Presented at the 3rd International Electronic Conference on Processes—Green and Sustainable Process Engineering and Process Systems Engineering (ECP 2024), 29–31 May 2024; Available online: https://sciforum.net/event/ECP2024.
Eng. Proc. 2024, 67(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024067067
Published: 18 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 3rd International Electronic Conference on Processes)
Abstract
:Arsenic has been detected in soil, vegetables, and irrigation water samples from the Delhi, NCR, region. The samples were collected in two distinct seasons: before a monsoon and after a monsoon. The materials were digested using a hot plate before being analysed for arsenic by hydride generating atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentration of arsenic in soil and water samples were below the permissible limits that are 30 mg/kg and 0.10 mg/L given by WHO. Leafy vegetables showed a higher concentration of arsenic when compared with tubers and roots. The mean concentration of arsenic in soil, water, and vegetables is 0.086723 mg/kg, 0.02348 mg/L, and 2.1458 mg/kg, respectively.
1. Introduction
Expanding urbanisation, industry, and agricultural activities to provide for the need for food has been brought about by population growth, which stresses the environment [1]. The hazards associated with the contamination of the environment are numerous, and one major concern for modern civilization is heavy metal (HM) poisoning [2]. Urban streams sustain thousands of local farmers in developing nations who irrigate vegetables and other crops for urban marketplaces. This is a critical issue since toxins in wastewater have the ability to harm people and the environment [3].
Heavy metal pollutants are a worldwide concern because of their persistence in aquatic ecosystems, bioaccumulation in food chains, and toxicity [4]. Rather than natural processes, the rise in industry, transportation, and commodity marketing are the main causes of heavy metal pollution in rising nations’ urban centres [5].
Long-term usage of purified and unpurified wastewater can result in elevated heavy metal levels [6]. Manures, sewage sludge, and agricultural chemical products are examples of anthropogenic causes of heavy metals in croplands. These compounds can alter the pH, nutrient content, and absorption of heavy metals in soil [7].
Soil contamination by heavy metals is a prevalent issue that can seriously jeopardise crops and expose people to hazardous metals through the food chain. Vegetables raised close to urban areas and suburbs are particularly vulnerable to heavy metal contamination [8]. The amount of soluble material, pH, plant species, fertiliser, and soil type all affect how well metals are absorbed by soil [9]. Heavy metals are absorbed by vegetables from their surroundings and can accumulate in both edible and inedible forms. Compared to fruits and stems, the leaves and roots of leafy vegetables and herbaceous plants have higher concentrations of heavy metals [10]. A dangerous element having metalloid properties, arsenic (As), is frequently detected in a variety of environmental samples, such as soil, sediment, water, aerosol, rain, aquatic life, plants, and milk [11]. Global concerns have been expressed about its carcinogenic potential and long-term detrimental consequences [12]. The main ways that humans are exposed to arsenic are through food, which includes volatile arsenic hydride, methylated anionic species, organoarsenic, and inorganic arsenite and arsenate [13]. The main determinants of arsenic’s toxicity, biological availability, and mechanism of transport are its methylated and inorganic forms [14]. The toxicity of arsenic trioxide (As[III]) exceeds that of arsenic pentoxide (As[V]). Moreover, toxicity decreases as methylation increases. Arsenic intoxication through food, crops, and water can cause various health issues, including conjunctivitis, cardiovascular disease, cancer, premalignant lesions of the skin, pigmentation issues (both diminished pigmentation and eruptions), and cancer of the bladder and lungs. Chronic arsenic exposure is also a significant concern [15].
India’s capital city of New Delhi boasts peri-urban plains that are heavily planted with vegetable crops. This study’s primary goal is to determine the amounts of arsenic (As) in Delhi’s soil, irrigated water, and vegetables at different times of the year.
2. Material and Methodology
2.1. Study Area
Delhi is located in northern India, at 28.618 N 77.238 E. Delhi’s climate is humid and subtropical. The mean annual temperature is 25 °C, while monthly temperatures range from 13 to 32 °C. The average annual rainfall is around 714 mm.
2.2. Sampling Sites and Sample Collection
The concentration of heavy metals in soil, vegetables, and irrigated water was estimated using data from three important vegetable producing locations in peri-urban Delhi: Okhla, Nazafgarh, and Yamuna pushta. Each site is further divided into 3 sub-sites that include Aligaon, Bahapur, Bakarwala, Dichaukala, Madanpur, the Pala village, Ranhola, the Rani garden, and Shakarpur.
The Yamuna pushta location is subject to pollution caused by airborne deposition from a neighbouring thermal power plant. The thermal power plant and sewage water are the primary sources of pollution at the Okhla site. The primary source of pollution in Najafgarh is sewage water.
2.3. Vegetable Sampling
Fresh samples of Solanum melongena (Brinjal), Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek leaf), Coriandrum sativum (coriander leaf), Lablab purpureus (Sem bean), Spinacia Oleracea (spinach), Brassica juncea (Mustard leaves), and Cicer arietinum (chickpea leaves) cultivated at the 3 sites were collected in two different seasons throughout the year that include the months from April to February. Seven vegetable samples were gathered from each site throughout various seasons. All vegetable samples were obtained in triplicate from each site.
The vegetables were collected in polyethylene bags around 500 g from each site and then stored in a clean and dried space. To remove dust and particles from vegetable samples, tap and distilled water were used. They were then chopped into fine pieces using a plastic knife and then dried in an oven with hot air at 50–60 °C for 24 h to eliminate moisture and retain a consistent bulk. Dried samples were reduced to a fine powder by using an acid-washed pestle and mortar and sieved with a 2 mm mesh sieve. The sieved contents were stored in bags of polyethylene or Tarson tubes until the digestion and analysis [16].
Heavy metals in vegetable specimens were eliminated via acid digestion. In total, 2 g of each sample was weighed into a digestion flask and treated with 10 mL of a concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) and perchloric acid (HClO4) solution.
Amounts of the previously specified acid mixer were added to an empty digestion flask to form a blank sample. After that, the mixture was digested at 80 to 90 degrees Celsius on an electric hot plate to concentrate until the resulting solutions were clear. After cooling down, the resulting solutions were passed through Whatman No.4 filter paper and adjusted to 50 mL with deionized water (Figure 1). The solution was subsequently placed in a universal bottle for a further experimental analysis via atomic absorption spectroscopy [16].
2.4. Soil Sampling
Soil samples were collected from three different locations throughout distinct seasons. Soil samples (about 1 kg) were gathered in clean polyethylene bags from the same sites as vegetable samples (for each variety separately) with farmers’ permission at depths varying from 0 to 20 cm using a stainless steel auger.
The samples were combined to form a composite sample. Soil samples were collected, packed, and tagged before being dispatched to a laboratory for the analysis. To achieve uniform weights, soil specimens were air-dried at the given temperature (25 °C) for 5 days and then oven-dried. The specimens were then mashed using a mortar and pestle until they passed through a 2 mm sieve and finally were homogeneous (Figure 1).
Soil samples were dried, sieved, and homogenised before being placed in polyethylene bags with desiccators for the digestion and analysis. The sample (1 g) was placed in a 50 mL crucible before adding 10 mL of pure HNO3. The sample was heated on a hot plate until the mixture became semi-dry. This was followed by the addition of 10 mL pure HNO3. The solution was placed on a heated plate for an hour to create a clear suspension. Following semi-drying, the sample was chilled and filtered using Whatman No. 42 filter paper. Specimens were then transferred into a 50 mL volumetric flask and they were filled with deionized distilled water for the AAS analysis [16].
2.5. Irrigated Water Sampling
Water samples from irrigation were gathered in polyethylene bottles that had been thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with deionized water. Irrigation water samples (50 mL) were collected from all three sites throughout two separate seasons. Water samples were gathered from several farmlands that use wastewater for irrigation. The obtained samples were further examined for instrumentation.
Irrigated water samples were collected in high-density, pre-cleaned polythene vials. To avoid contamination, the empty bottles were cleansed with metal-free soap, rinsed with 10% HNO3, and finally washed with double-deionized water. The gathered specimens were taken to the lab and treated with 1 mL of strong nitric acid to prevent microbial growth. The samples were stored at room temperature to detect heavy metals. Heavy metals were measured with an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer [17].
2.6. Analysis of Heavy Metal (Arsenic)
Heavy metal concentrations were determined using hydride generation atomic absorption spectroscopy. The detection limit of AAS for arsenic is 0.1 ug/L. All experiments were carried out at the AIIMS Toxicology Department of Forensic Science in Delhi, India.
Arsenic concentrations in vegetable, soil, and water samples were evaluated using AAS under optimal analytical circumstances. The analysis was conducted using AAS-grade standard solutions and reagents with a purity of 99.99%. The research employed 1000 mg L-1 heavy metal stock solutions as working standards. The method’s accuracy and precision were evaluated using standard reference materials (NBS-SRM 1573). Heavy metal analysis findings were determined to be within a 2% variation from the approved values [17].
2.7. Statistical Analysis (Arsenic)
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (version 21) was used. We derived fundamental statistical parameters and correlation coefficients for heavy metal concentrations in irrigation water, soil, and crops [16].
3. Results
The arsenic (As) concentration was estimated in the agriculture soil, vegetables, and irrigated water nearby Yamuna River in the Delhi, NCR, region. The studied area is divided into three major sites. Each site is further divided into three sub-sites. Soil, water, and vegetable samples were collected from a total of nine sub-sites nearby Yamuna River in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. A total of 144 samples were collected in a one-year duration starting from January 2023 to December 2023. The mean arsenic concentration in agriculture soil, vegetables, and irrigated water is described below.
3.1. Site-Wise Distribution of Soil and Water Samples
In the site-wise analysis of water samples as mentioned in Table 1, the mean concentration of all three sites is 0.0318 mg/L. The Najafgarh site shows the highest concentration of arsenic in water, 0.10 mg/L, which is below the permissible limit of WHO and FAO, which is 1 mg/L. The minimum concentration was below the detection limit in all three sites while maximum concentrations were 0.09 mg/L, 0.05 mg/L, and 0.10 mg/L at Najafgarh, Okhla, and Yamuna pushta, respectively.
In soil samples, the maximum concentration, 2.60 mg/kg, was observed in the Okhla region followed by the Najafgarh region, 2.20 mg/kg, and the Yamuna pushta region, where concentration was found to be the lowest, 1.90 mg/kg. The maximum concentration was 2.60 mg/kg in the Okhla region. The mean concentration of all three sites for the agriculture soil sample is 0.8892 mg/kg. Arsenic was found to be highest in the Okhla area, 2.60 mg/kg, which is below the permissible limit of WHO and FAO, which is 30 mg/kg [11] (Table 1).
3.2. Season-Wise Distribution of Soil and Water Samples
The mean concentration of arsenic in the irrigation water sample was 0.0318 mg/L. The minimum concentration was below the detection limit while the maximum concentration was 0.010 mg/L. The mean concentration was found to be higher at 0.0452 mg/L in the pre-monsoon season compared to the post-monsoon season at 0.0184 mg/L. In both the seasons, the concentration was below the permissible limit of 0.10 mg/L in irrigated water as per the FAO guidelines [11].
In the agriculture soil sample, the mean concentration of arsenic (As) was 0.08892 mg/kg. The minimum and maximum concentration was 0.00 mg/kg and 2.60 mg/kg, respectively. In the pre-monsoon season, the concentration was 1.6653 mg/kg while it was 0.1132 mg/kg in the post-monsoon season. The concentration was found to be higher than the permissible limit of WHO and FAO, which is 30 mg/kg [11] (Table 2).
3.3. Sub-Site-Wise Distribution of Soil and Water Samples
Upon the comparison of all the sub-sites selected for the present study, it was observed that in the water sample, the maximum concentration, 0.09 mg/L, was in Dichaukala, Bakar Wala, and Ranhola sub-sites followed by Bahapur, 0.004 mg/L. The minimum concentration of arsenic was observed in the Rani garden, 0.002 mg/L. The overall mean concentration observed is 0.189 mg/L (Table 3).
In soil samples, the maximum concentration was observed in Bahapur and Madanpur, 2.60 mg/kg, followed by Dichaukala, Bakar Wala, and Ranhola, 2.20 mg/kg. The concentration of cadmium was minimum, 1.90 mg/L, at the Rani garden and Pala village region. The overall mean concentration observed is 0.6200 mg/L (Table 3).
3.4. Site-Wise Distribution of Vegetables
Site-wise distribution is mentioned in Table 4. The mean concentration of all three sites of the vegetable sample is 2.1458 mg/kg. Okhla and Najafgarh are showing the highest concentration of arsenic in vegetable samples, which is above the permissible limit of WHO and FAO, which is 0.1 mg/kg for leafy vegetables and 0.3 mg/kg for root vegetables. Arsenic was found to be highest in the Okhla region while the mean concentration is 2.9875. The majority of vegetable samples crossed the permissible limit of WHO and FAO [11] (Table 4).
3.5. Season-Wise Distribution of Vegetable Samples
Season-wise distribution is mentioned in Table 5, depicting the pre-monsoon and the post-monsoon seasons for the vegetables. The mean concentration of the arsenic level in vegetables for both seasons is 2.1458 mg/kg. The mean concentration of the pre-monsoon season is 2.6778 mg/kg, which is higher than the post-monsoon season, which is 1.6139 mg/kg.
3.6. Sub-Site-Wise Distribution of Soil and Vegetable Samples
Different vegetable samples’ concentration is shown in the below-mentioned Table 6. The mean concentration of the samples is 2.1458 mg/kg. The highest concentration of arsenic is found in the leafy vegetables, which are coriander and spinach, which is 2.6944 mg/kg and 2.8611 mg/kg, respectively, whereas the lowest concentration has been found in the cabbage, which is 1.4222 mg/kg.
4. Discussion
The capital city is traversed by the Yamuna River, a major Ganges tributary of immense economic significance that provides drinking water to over double the population of India. All in all, it delivers water to almost 70% of Delhi’s population, serving 57 million people [18]. Human activity has caused a reported remarkable increase in the amounts of metals in Indian rivers in recent years [19]. Among the most dangerous pollutants, industrial effluents, heavy metals, and surface and agricultural runoff are thought to pose serious health concerns to people [20]. Regretfully, incompletely treated or untreated sewage water carrying dangerous metals has been the primary source of pollution for the Indian Yamuna River, its main affluent, and the drainage area surrounding it [21,22].
According to Bhattacharyya et al., in the areas of the Ghentugachi village in West Bengal, the range of arsenic accumulations in the tomato fruit, spinach leaf, and cauliflower head was 0.08 mg/kg, 2.73 mg/kg, and 0.15 mg/kg. Although the dietary risk factors (% PTWI, HQ, TCR) were not worrisome for cauliflower and tomato, they constituted a significant hazard to spinach consumption. Vermicomposting and pond water irrigation, either alone or in combination with STW, reduced dietary hazards significantly [23].
The concentrations of arsenic were examined in eight varieties of vegetables typically found in Bangladesh through consecutive irrigation/harvesting techniques. Arsenic concentrations were determined using hydride generation atomic absorption spectroscopy (HG-AAS). Radish, Indian spinach, carrot, okra, amaranth, and brinjal all help to reduce arsenic accumulation. A yield of 10 irrigations with water (3.0 L/irrigation) with arsenic contents ranging from ≥0.45 mg/L−1 to 0.071 mg/kg areas exceeded the MPL in vegetables (1 mg/kg wet weight). Arsenic levels in vegetables grew linearly over time and rapidly with subsequent harvests. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests a preliminary tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 0.13 kg/day of inorganic arsenic for okra, Indian spinach, and carrot. Consuming leafy vegetables at the same time may constitute a health risk [24].
The densities of popular vegetables such as tomato, lady’s finger, brinjal, bottle gourd, radish, maize, and ridge gourd have been studied in the Yamuna flood plains (YFPs) of Delhi. The concentrations (dry weight) vary from 0.6 to 2.52 mg/kg, with tomato coming in second at 2.36 mg/kg and radish having the highest accumulation at 2.52 mg/kg. As a result, the least juicy fruits have the least accumulation while the roots have the most. This is similar to how irrigation water from adjacent thermal power plants that run on coal adds to the high pollution level. If not adequately examined, this might represent a major health danger to residents in highly populated regions around YFP [25].
5. Conclusions
Regarding the issue of arsenic levels in vegetable samples from Delhi’s peri-urban regions, they were below the allowed limits in agricultural soil, which is concerning since contamination has become a growing hazard to human health due to the consumption of tainted food grown in the polluted zone. The samples were collected across two seasons: pre- and post-monsoon. Arsenic levels were below the permissible limits in the majority of samples from Okhla, Yamuna pushta, and Najafgarh. Though the quantity of arsenic in irrigation water was below the detection limit, continued use of wastewater can cause heavy metals to accumulate in the soil. The soil and crops were contaminated by pesticides, sewage water, industrial effluent, and metals from thermal power plants. To reduce arsenic levels in soil and vegetables, it is advisable to avoid using wastewater for irrigation and instead use clean, uncontaminated water for agricultural purposes.
Author Contributions
S.S. contributed in conceptualization, project administration, investigation, and original draft preparation. P.A. contributed in supervision, validation, and project administration. A.D. contributed in data curation, formal analysis, and visualisation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available in the article.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to all the laboratory technicians and other technical staff of the Research Laboratory, Sharda School of Allied Health Sciences, Sharda University, and the Toxicology Department Lab of AIIMS, Delhi, India, for their technical support and invaluable assistance throughout the experiments.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
Figure shows sampling preparation process for instrumental analysis.
Table 1.
Site-wise Distribution of Arsenic (As) in Irrigated water and Agriculture soil.
| Sites | Arsenic (As) Level in Irrigated Water (mg/L) | Arsenic (As) Level in Agriculture Soil (mg/kg) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Najafgarh (N = 48) | Mean | 0.0502 | 0.9285 |
| Std. Deviation | 0.02726 | 0.78178 | |
| Minimum | 0.02 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.09 | 2.20 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00393 | 0.11284 | |
| Okhla (N = 48) | Mean | 0.0280 | 1.0621 |
| Std. Deviation | 0.013624 | 1.05382 | |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.10 | 1.90 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00189 | 0.10088 | |
| Yamuna Pushta (N = 48) | Mean | 0.0172 | 0.6771 |
| Std. Deviation | 0.01311 | 0.69890 | |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.10 | 1.90 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00196 | 0.1088 | |
| Total (N = 148) | Mean | 0.0318 | 0.8892 |
| Std. Deviation | 0.02348 | 0.86723 | |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.10 | 2.60 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00196 | 0.7227 | |
Table 2.
Season-wise Distribution of Arsenic (As) in Irrigated water and Agriculture soil.
| Season | Arsenic (As) Level in Irrigated Water (mg/L) | Arsenic (As) Level in Agriculture Soil (mg/kg) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-Monsoon Season (N = 72) | Mean | 0.0452 | 1.6653 |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 1.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.09 | 2.60 | |
| Std. Deviation | 0.2485 | 0.46909 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00293 | 0.05528 | |
| Post-Monsoon Season (N = 72) | Mean | 0.0184 | 0.1132 |
| Minimum | 0.10 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.01 | 1.00 | |
| Std. Deviation | 0.01131 | 027067 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00133 | 0.03190 | |
| Total (N = 144) | Mean | 0.0318 | 0.8892 |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.10 | 2.60 | |
| Std. Deviation | 0.02348 | 0.86723 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.00196 | 0.07227 | |
Table 3.
Sub-site-wise distribution of soil and water samples.
| Sub-Sites | Arsenic Water Level (mg/L) | Soil Arsenic Level (mg/kg) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aligaon (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0264 | 1.0612 |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.04 | 2.40 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.01420 | 1.07857 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00355 | 0.26964 | |
| Bahapur (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0289 | 1.0169 |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.05 | 2.60 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.01368 | 1.03111 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00342 | 0.25778 | |
| Bakar Wala (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0489 | 0.8112 |
| Minimum | 0.02 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.09 | 2.20 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.02669 | 0.79497 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00667 | 0.19874 | |
| Dichaukala (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0518 | 1.000 |
| Minimum | 1.34 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 12.56 | 0.08 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.02919 | 0.81698 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00730 | 0.20424 | |
| Madanpur Khaddar (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0288 | 1.1081 |
| Minimum | 0.67 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 11.50 | 0.07 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.1378 | 1.11748 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00345 | 0.27937 | |
| Pala village (N = 16) | Mean | 0.178 | 0.6894 |
| Minimum | 0.02 | 0.03 | |
| Maximum | 0.03 | 1.90 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.00651 | 0.72893 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00163 | 0.18223 | |
| Ranhola (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0499 | 0.9744 |
| Minimum | 0.02 | 0.03 | |
| Maximum | 0.09 | 2.20 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.2756 | 0.77893 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00689 | 0.19255 | |
| Rani garden (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0151 | 0.7219 |
| Minimum | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
| Maximum | 0.02 | 1.90 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.00351 | 0.76103 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.00088 | 0.19026 | |
| Shakarpur (N = 16) | Mean | 0.0189 | 0.6200 |
| Minimum | 0.03 | 1.90 | |
| Maximum | 0.00651 | 0.72893 | |
| Std. deviation | 0.00163 | 0.18223 | |
| Std. error of mean | 0.03 | 1.90 | |
Table 4.
Site-wise distribution of Vegetable samples.
| Site | Arsenic (As) Level in (mg/kg) | |
|---|---|---|
| Najafgarh site (N = 48) | Mean | 2.1937 |
| Minimum | 1.00 | |
| Maximum | 4.20 | |
| Std. Deviation | 0.90375 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.13045 | |
| Okhla site (N = 48) | Mean | 2.9875 |
| Minimum | 1.80 | |
| Maximum | 6.00 | |
| Std. Deviation | 1.04426 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.15073 | |
| Yamuna pushta (N = 48) | Mean | 1.2563 |
| Minimum | 0.50 | |
| Maximum | 2.20 | |
| Std. Deviation | 0.43706 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.6308 | |
| Total (N = 144) | Mean | 2.1458 |
| Minimum | 0.50 | |
| Maximum | 6.00 | |
| Std. Deviation | 1.09262 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.09105 | |
Table 5.
Season-wise distribution of Vegetable samples.
| Season | Arsenic (As) Level in (mg/kg) | |
|---|---|---|
| Pre-Monsoon Season (N = 72) | Mean | 2.6778 |
| Minimum | 1 | |
| Maximum | 6 | |
| Std. Deviation | 1.14255 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.13465 | |
| Post-Monsoon Season (N = 72) | Mean | 1.6139 |
| Minimum | 0.5 | |
| Maximum | 3.2 | |
| Std. Deviation | 0.72468 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.0854 | |
| Total (N = 144) | Mean | 2.1458 |
| Minimum | 0.5 | |
| Maximum | 6 | |
| Std. Deviation | 1.09262 | |
| Std. Error of Mean | 0.09105 | |
Table 6.
Distribution of Arsenic (As) in different Vegetables.
| S. No. | Mean | No. of Samples | Vegetable | Std. Deviation | Minimum | Maximum | Std. Error of Mean |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2.0778 | 9 | Beans | 0.79180 | 1.00 | 3.00 | 0.26393 |
| 2 | 1.5222 | 9 | Beetroot | 0.65149 | 1.00 | 2.80 | 0.21716 |
| 3 | 2.2889 | 9 | Brinjal | 0.55101 | 1.40 | 3.00 | 0.18367 |
| 4 | 1.4222 | 9 | Cabbage | 0.65912 | 0.70 | 2.40 | 0.21971 |
| 5 | 1.9611 | 18 | Cauliflower | 0.96414 | 0.70 | 3.80 | 0.22725 |
| 6 | 2.6944 | 18 | Dhania | 1.39430 | 0.90 | 5.50 | 0.32864 |
| 7 | 2.2778 | 9 | Garlic | 0.83782 | 1.10 | 3.10 | 0.27927 |
| 8 | 2.5333 | 9 | Lump cabbage | 0.91241 | 1.20 | 3.40 | 0.30414 |
| 9 | 1.8722 | 18 | Radish | 0.92914 | 0.50 | 3.80 | 0.21900 |
| 10 | 1.9556 | 9 | Sarso leaf | 0.75019 | 1.00 | 3.00 | 0.25006 |
| 11 | 2.8611 | 18 | Spinach | 1.56849 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 0.36970 |
| 12 | 1.4778 | 9 | Spring onion | 0.65149 | 0.80 | 2.50 | 0.21716 |
| Total | 2.1458 | 144 | ------- | 1.09262 | 0.50 | 6.00 | 0.09105 |
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MDPI and ACS Style
Singhania, S.; Agrawal, P.; Dwivedi, A. Levels of Arsenic in Soil, Irrigation Water, and Vegetables in Sites of Delhi Nearby Yamuna Region. Eng. Proc. 2024, 67, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024067067
AMA Style
Singhania S, Agrawal P, Dwivedi A. Levels of Arsenic in Soil, Irrigation Water, and Vegetables in Sites of Delhi Nearby Yamuna Region. Engineering Proceedings. 2024; 67(1):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024067067
Chicago/Turabian StyleSinghania, Shrisha, Prashant Agrawal, and Achala Dwivedi. 2024. "Levels of Arsenic in Soil, Irrigation Water, and Vegetables in Sites of Delhi Nearby Yamuna Region" Engineering Proceedings 67, no. 1: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024067067
APA StyleSinghania, S., Agrawal, P., & Dwivedi, A. (2024). Levels of Arsenic in Soil, Irrigation Water, and Vegetables in Sites of Delhi Nearby Yamuna Region. Engineering Proceedings, 67(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024067067
