Integrated Blockchain, IoT, and Green Hydrogen Approach for Sustainable and Connected Supply Chain—Application Case in Morocco ^†

Abstract

The global energy transition and digitalization are reshaping traditional production and consumption paradigms. Green hydrogen is emerging as a key element for decarbonizing sectors like industry and transportation, offering a viable alternative to fossil fuels and a pathway toward mitigating climate change. However, implementing green hydrogen supply chains presents challenges related to traceability, operational efficiency, and process certification. This paper explores how blockchain and the Internet of Things can address these challenges and transform the green hydrogen supply chain. Using Morocco as a case study—a country with abundant renewable resources and a strategic focus on green hydrogen—this article proposes innovative technological solutions to support a sustainable energy transition and contribute to a more secure and energy-efficient future. We analyze the current state of research on blockchain, IoT, and green hydrogen, identify key areas for advancement, and present a proposed framework for integrating these technologies.

1. Introduction

The energy transition and digitalization are profoundly redefining the modes of energy production and consumption on a global scale. In this context, green hydrogen technology, derived from renewable energies, is positioned as a strategic lever for decarbonizing key sectors such as industry and transport.

IoT, with its real-time data collection capabilities, empowers dynamic optimization and granular control across various stages of the green hydrogen supply chain. Specifically, strategically deployed sensors can monitor and relay critical parameters such as hydrogen production rates, storage tank pressure and temperature, pipeline integrity, and transportation conditions. This real-time data stream facilitates immediate responses to fluctuations in supply and demand, optimizing production schedules, preventing potential safety hazards, and ensuring efficient delivery to end users. Moreover, real-time data enables the predictive maintenance of equipment, minimizing downtime and maximizing operational efficiency [1]. Blockchain technology, with its immutable and distributed ledger system, enables the secure and transparent tracking of green hydrogen throughout the entire supply chain [2]. This ensures the verifiable provenance of green hydrogen, guaranteeing its origin from renewable sources and building trust among stakeholders.

However, its implementation remains complex, particularly in terms of traceability, operational efficiency, and certification. In addition, in the face of climate change and dependence on fossil fuels, green hydrogen offers a credible alternative for reducing carbon emissions and modernizing energy-intensive sectors. The modernization of supply chains and energy systems is critical, necessitating improvements in transparency, efficiency, and resilience to facilitate the integration of renewable energy sources and ensure a sustainable energy future [3].

Despite this, the development of green hydrogen’s supply chain requires mechanisms that guarantee transparency, traceability, and collaboration between stakeholders. Another innovative technology, blockchain, stands out for its potential to secure data, optimize logistics flows, and strengthen trust in supply ecosystems [4]. In combination with IoT, it offers robust solutions to meet the challenges of green hydrogen.

Thanks to its renewable energy potential, Morocco is ideally positioned to play a central role in this energy revolution. By analyzing these available technologies, this article explores how blockchain and the Internet of Things (IoT) can address these challenges and transform the green hydrogen supply chain. Morocco, rich in renewable resources, is studied as a promising example, highlighting innovative technological solutions for a sustainable energy transition [5]. In the following section, we will analyze previous research on blockchain, IoT, and green hydrogen.

This paper proposes a prototype architecture for a blockchain- and IoT-based system that will be proposed to Moroccan green hydrogen suppliers, producers, and consumers, enabling the comprehensive monitoring and management of green hydrogen throughout the supply chain. The proposed framework will allow us to list the main results obtained as well as to identify areas for further progress. In the “Materials and Methods” Section, we will explain our approach to integrating blockchain, IoT, and green hydrogen for a sustainable and connected supply chain, which is the subject of this article, and then we will discuss the findings. Finally, the conclusion will allow us to contextualize our work and outline future perspectives.

2. Related Works

The integration of blockchain and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies into supply chains, particularly for green hydrogen, has attracted significant research attention [6]. Blockchain, with its cryptographically secure, immutable, and decentralized ledger, offers a robust solution for enhancing transparency and traceability across the green hydrogen supply chain, addressing key challenges related to provenance, production processes, and transactions [7]. Similarly, IoT provides real-time data collection and monitoring, enabling the dynamic optimization of supply chain processes. Given recent advances in sensor technology as well as increasing connectivity options, management in the oil and gas industry can monitor anything in real time, from the changing seabed topography and chemical composition of crude oil to the integrity of a gas pipeline and tanker fleet positioning [8].

The escalating emphasis on environmental stewardship, coupled with the increasing globalization of supply networks, has introduced intricate layers of complexity in overseeing and regulating these interconnected systems [9]. To manage this complexity, there is a growing demand for sophisticated technological solutions that can enhance supply chain visibility, ensure the provenance and integrity of products throughout their lifecycle, and foster greater accountability among stakeholders.

2.1. Blockchain and IoT in Supply Chains

Blockchain has demonstrated its potential to improve the traceability of products and secure data sharing among supply chain participants. For instance, ref. [10] highlighted blockchain’s role in peer-to-peer energy markets and green hydrogen supply chains, emphasizing its ability to address existing challenges such as data integrity and traceability. Additionally, IoT devices facilitate the seamless collection of critical supply chain data, supporting real-time decision-making processes [11]. The synergistic integration of blockchain and IoT represents a paradigm shift in supply chain management, enabling unprecedented levels of transparency, security, and operational efficiency across a multitude of sectors [12].

The confluence of blockchain and IoT technologies offers transformative opportunities for supply chain management, particularly in enhancing transparency, security, and efficiency. Blockchain’s decentralized and immutable ledger system ensures a complete and verifiable record of every transaction and movement of goods. This data is readily accessible to authorized participants, fostering transparency and trust by eliminating information silos. Furthermore, the integration of IoT, with its ability to capture real-time data from diverse sources such as sensors monitoring temperature and location [13], adds another layer of granularity and immediacy to this transparent and secure system. This combination enables the real-time tracking and verification of goods, enhancing accountability and efficiency throughout the supply chain.

2.2. Applications in Green Hydrogen Supply Chains

The production, storage, and distribution of green hydrogen involve complex interactions among multiple stakeholders, which can benefit significantly from blockchain and IoT integration. Blockchain provides a decentralized platform for tracking green hydrogen’s production from renewable sources, as demonstrated by [14]. Meanwhile, IoT enables the real-time monitoring of hydrogen production processes, ensuring efficiency and safety [15]. These technologies together foster transparency and enhance compliance with environmental standards. The ability to trace the origin and journey of green hydrogen through the supply chain, from production to end use, builds consumer confidence and promotes the adoption of sustainable energy practices [16]. Through the establishment of an immutable and transparent record of hydrogen’s lifecycle, from its genesis to its final application, such a system effectively addresses existing transparency deficits, definitively validates the authenticity and provenance of green hydrogen, and bolsters stakeholder confidence in the ecological soundness of the energy source.

2.3. Energy Trading and Smart Contracts

Smart contracts, self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code, are revolutionizing energy trading, particularly within the green hydrogen sector. These automated agreements, typically executed on a blockchain platform, streamline transactions by eliminating intermediaries, reducing delays and associated costs [7]. For example, in peer-to-peer energy trading, smart contracts can automatically manage the transfer of green hydrogen ownership and payment between producers and consumers based on predefined conditions such as delivery verification and price fluctuations [17]. This automation enhances efficiency, transparency, and trust among trading partners, fostering a more dynamic and responsive energy market. Moreover, smart contracts can facilitate complex energy transactions involving multiple parties, such as green hydrogen swaps or derivatives trading, further optimizing resource allocation and risk management within the evolving hydrogen economy.

The role of blockchain in energy trading is particularly noteworthy. Smart contracts automate transactions, reducing the need for intermediaries and ensuring efficient peer-to-peer energy trading. For example, the study by [17] illustrated how blockchain-enabled smart contracts streamline energy transactions, minimizing delays and reducing costs. This application is directly relevant to the green hydrogen supply chain, where dynamic pricing and automated transactions can significantly enhance efficiency. Given the current research works in the energy trading sector, blockchain’s role in energy trading extends beyond mere automation, encompassing enhanced security, transparency, and optimization of energy distribution networks.

2.4. Case Studies in Renewable Energy

Several case studies demonstrate the successful implementation of blockchain and IoT in renewable energy supply chains. The “smart city scenario”, as noted by [11], has been used for peer-to-peer energy trading, achieving significant energy cost reductions. Moreover, Wang, Y., Han, J. H., & Beynon-Davies, P. highlight that blockchain’s immutability and transparency are crucial for verifying the renewable origin of energy, enhancing the credibility of green energy claims.

The implementation of blockchain technology by prominent energy companies like Iberdrola [18] for tracking renewable energy sources exemplifies a broader trend toward enhancing transparency and accountability in the energy sector. Iberdrola’s initiatives, as described in [19], leverage blockchain to provide verifiable proof of the origin of renewable energy, fostering consumer trust and promoting greater engagement with sustainable energy practices. Similarly, the application of blockchain in tracing the origins of solar panels (Chain of Solar—Chain of Things, 2016) allows manufacturers to ensure ethical sourcing and combat counterfeiting, bolstering consumer confidence in the quality and sustainability of solar energy products. Furthermore, blockchain’s secure and transparent nature facilitates the verification of green hydrogen’s renewable origin [20], a critical factor in the burgeoning green hydrogen market where provenance significantly impacts value proposition [21]. These diverse applications of blockchain technology collectively contribute to a more transparent, secure, and sustainable energy ecosystem [22].

Real-world case studies of blockchain and IoT integration in renewable energy supply chains offer valuable insights into the practical benefits, challenges, and potential of these transformative technologies [23]. By examining how these innovative solutions have been implemented in various renewable energy contexts, we can gain a deeper understanding of their impact on improving transparency, efficiency, and sustainability across the energy sector. These case studies shed light on the specific ways in which blockchain and IoT have been leveraged to enhance the traceability, automation, and optimization of renewable energy supply chains, ultimately fostering greater consumer trust and accelerating the adoption of sustainable energy practices. Through a comprehensive analysis of these real-world applications, we can identify the best practices, address implementation barriers, and unlock new opportunities for further integration of these transformative technologies in the renewable energy landscape.

2.5. Challenges and Opportunities

Despite the transformative potential of blockchain and IoT in green hydrogen supply chains, several obstacles hinder widespread adoption. High implementation costs, scalability issues, and regulatory uncertainties remain significant challenges. The study [24] provides a comprehensive overview of these challenges, emphasizing the financial burden of initial investment, the complexities of system design, and the need for robust technological development. Furthermore, highlights the importance of data integrity and traceability in green hydrogen supply chains and discusses how blockchain can address these challenges, hinting at the complexity of integrating these new technologies into existing infrastructure. Additionally, [19] points out the potential for increased transaction costs and technical hurdles in integrating blockchain with current supply chain systems. Resistance from stakeholders accustomed to traditional methods and a lack of standardized certification processes are also noted as significant barriers.

However, numerous opportunities exist to overcome these challenges and unlock the full potential of blockchain and IoT. Strategic collaborations among stakeholders, standardization efforts, and continued technological advancements are crucial for realizing the full benefits of these technologies. As ref. [20] suggests, the integration of blockchain and IoT can positively impact various supply chain objectives, including cost reduction, quality enhancement, increased speed and dependability, risk mitigation, sustainability improvements, and greater flexibility. Ref. [21] mentions the introduction of blockchain technologies to address security and privacy issues in IoT and Industry 4.0, further highlighting the potential benefits. The study of [22] underscores the importance of addressing challenges such as a lack of understanding, technological difficulties, data manipulation, stakeholder buy-in, and regulatory frameworks. Addressing these challenges through collaborative initiatives and technological innovation will be critical for realizing the envisioned transformation.

2.6. Research Gap

While the existing literature extensively explores the transformative potential of blockchain and IoT to revolutionize supply chain management, particularly within the renewable energy sector, a noticeable gap exists concerning their application in emerging economies, especially in the context of Morocco. This gap is particularly significant given Morocco’s unique position as a burgeoning hub for renewable energy, especially green hydrogen. The nation’s ambitious renewable energy targets, coupled with its strategic geographical location and commitment to sustainable development, present both significant opportunities and distinct challenges for integrating these technologies. Although specifically blockchain, IoT, and green hydrogen application in Morocco, underscoring the growing interest in this area.

This research seeks to address the existing gap in the literature by thoroughly investigating the potential of blockchain and IoT technologies to significantly enhance the efficiency, transparency, and overall sustainability of green hydrogen supply chains within the Moroccan context. In this paper, we will propose a layered solution architecture to tackle these challenges and facilitate the integration of blockchain and IoT technologies into Morocco’s green hydrogen sector. This architecture will provide a practical framework for implementation, outlining the necessary technological components, data flows, and stakeholder interactions.

Moreover, this study will analyze the promising potential of seamlessly integrating blockchain and IoT technologies within the framework of a “smart city scenario”, as discussed by Babaei et al. [23]), which has already demonstrated remarkable success in enabling peer-to-peer energy trading and achieving substantial cost reductions.

Addressing this research gap will provide valuable insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers, enabling more effective strategies for integrating blockchain and IoT in green hydrogen supply chains within emerging economies like Morocco. This research will also contribute to the broader understanding of how these technologies can accelerate the global transition to sustainable energy systems.

3. Materials and Methods

In this section, we present our comprehensive approach for the integration of blockchain and IoT technologies to make the hydrogen supply chain green, sustainable, and connected. We will begin by providing a detailed overview of the technical and technological characteristics of blockchain and IoT, highlighting their key features and capabilities. Next, we will delve into the steps involved in the green hydrogen supply chain flow, outlining the various stages and stakeholders involved. Finally, we will present our proposed blockchain-based solution, which aims to enhance the security, transparency, and overall management of the green hydrogen supply chain through the seamless integration of these transformative technologies.

3.1. Technical Characteristics of the Technologies

Here, we will explore the key features and uses of blockchain and the Internet of Things.

Blockchain is a secure, decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers. Its main characteristics are immutability, transparency, and automation through smart contracts. Blockchain can greatly improve traceability and transparency in supply chains by creating an unchangeable record of all transactions and certifying the renewable origin of energy. It can also measure carbon emissions and automate various data management processes, ultimately enhancing data access performance and reliability in hydrogen production.

IoT refers to a network of interconnected devices that can collect, analyze, and share data in real time. IoT technologies, like sensors, enable the monitoring of critical parameters in the green hydrogen supply chain. This helps optimize operations, predict breakdowns, and support more efficient and responsive management. The intelligent integration of diverse equipment and systems through IoT can lead to highly resilient and scalable infrastructures, capable of adapting to changing demands and conditions. By using advanced data analytics and machine learning, these IoT-powered systems can extract valuable insights from real-time data, automate complex decision-making, and drive continuous improvement.

3.1.1. Blockchain

Blockchain strengthens the traceability and transparency of supply chains thanks to its immutable ledgers. It automates transactions using smart contracts, certifies the renewable origin of energy, and measures carbon emissions.

Figure 1 provides a visual representation of how the adoption of blockchain technology can significantly improve data access performance in hydrogen production. Blockchain secures and streamlines data access, enhances transparency across the supply chain, and automates various aspects of data management.

These key impacts of blockchain technology ultimately bolster the overall efficiency, reliability, and accessibility of data within the hydrogen production ecosystem.

Blockchain technology offers a robust solution for enhancing transparency and traceability within the green hydrogen supply chain. As Bhavana et al. explain, blockchain creates ‘a decentralized and public ledger that logs each transaction and movement of green hydrogen’, providing ‘up-to-date and precise information pertaining to the source, quality, and carbon emissions’. This inherent transparency, facilitated by the immutable nature of the blockchain, ‘fosters confidence among participants and advances the cause for a responsible and sustainable supply chain’ [2]. Furthermore, the automation of data management processes through blockchain-powered smart contracts eliminates the need for manual interventions, streamlining data access and improving the timeliness and reliability of information. This seamless integration of blockchain technology optimizes data flow, reduces the risk of errors, and empowers stakeholders to make more informed, data-driven decisions.

In summary, the adoption of blockchain technology in the hydrogen production sector significantly bolsters data access performance by securing data, enhancing transparency, and automating various data management tasks, ultimately leading to greater efficiency, reliability, and accessibility of critical information.

3.1.2. Internet of Things (IoT)

Figure 2 illustrates a conceptual model for a sustainable green hydrogen supply chain framework that integrates blockchain and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies to enable a secure, transparent, and intelligent energy ecosystem. The supply chain is structured as a closed-loop cycle comprising seven key stages: demand management, renewable feedstock acquisition, hydrogen production, storage, distribution, end-user delivery, and feedback to demand management. Positioned at the core of this circular flow, blockchain and IoT serve as foundational digital enablers. Blockchain ensures data immutability, traceability, and decentralized trust across all stages of the supply chain, while IoT enables real-time data acquisition, monitoring, and communication through embedded sensors and devices. The synergy between these technologies allows for dynamic optimization, predictive analytics, and enhanced decision-making, ensuring the reliability and sustainability of green hydrogen production and distribution. The model demonstrates how digital infrastructure can be embedded within physical supply chains to facilitate an efficient energy transition and decentralized management in alignment with green energy objectives.

3.2. Supply Chain Analysis

In this section, we will comprehensively address the stages of the green hydrogen supply chain, from demand management to the end user, by strategically integrating and deploying blockchain and IoT technologies at each critical phase. This holistic approach will enable greater efficiency, transparency, and sustainability across the entire supply chain ecosystem.

At the demand management stage, IoT sensors will collect real-time data on hydrogen consumption patterns across various sectors, allowing for more accurate forecasting and anticipation of future needs. This data-driven approach, combined with the use of blockchain-powered smart contracts, will facilitate dynamic pricing and encourage flexible consumption to optimize supply–demand balance. The integration of IoT, cloud computing, and edge computing will create a robust infrastructure for advanced predictive modeling and autonomous adjustments in production and distribution, leading to a highly responsive and efficient demand management system.

In the data analysis phase, the wealth of information generated by IoT sensors and blockchain transactions will be leveraged to drive continuous process improvement and optimization. Advanced analytical platforms, incorporating predictive and prescriptive analytics, as well as deep learning algorithms, will unlock deeper insights into the intricate dynamics of the supply chain. This will empower stakeholders to make more informed, data-driven decisions, ultimately enhancing operational efficiency, transparency, and sustainability across the entire green hydrogen ecosystem.

Figure 3 offers a conceptual view of the data lifecycle in a green hydrogen supply chain, combining IoT capabilities with blockchain for end-to-end transparency. It starts with sensors installed in the production environment, tracking key operational metrics in real time. The generated data flows into a processing pipeline where it’s parsed, structured, and verified using consensus protocols to ensure accuracy and trustworthiness. After passing through this validation layer, smart contracts enforce pre-set rules before the data is permanently stored on a secure blockchain. This structure guarantees tamper-proof records that are then accessed for analytics and monitoring. Ultimately, these insights feed into decision-making processes, closing the loop back to producers and allowing the system to evolve and self-correct over time.

3.2.1. Green Hydrogen Demand Management

The Internet of Things plays a crucial role in green hydrogen demand management by collecting real-time data on hydrogen consumption patterns across various sectors. This real-time data allows for more accurate forecasting and anticipation of future hydrogen needs using predictive algorithms. Through the integration of IoT sensors, cloud computing, and edge computing, a robust ecosystem is created for comprehensive data analysis, advanced predictive modeling, and the potential for autonomous adjustments in production and distribution.

Through this integrated approach, production can be dynamically adjusted to avoid both waste and shortages, ensuring a balanced supply–demand relationship. Furthermore, blockchain technology, leveraged through smart contracts, facilitates seamless transactions between hydrogen producers and consumers. Smart contracts also enable dynamic tariff structures, which can encourage flexible consumption and further optimize the demand management system.

This holistic integration of IoT, cloud and edge computing, blockchain, and advanced analytics leads to a highly responsive and optimized green hydrogen demand management system. It empowers stakeholders to make informed, data-driven decisions, enhance operational efficiency, and maintain a sustainable balance across the entire supply chain ecosystem.

3.2.2. Green Hydrogen Data Analysis

Analyzing data from production and distribution in real time is crucial for optimizing the green hydrogen supply chain. This can be achieved using advanced analytical platforms that leverage the power of the Internet of Things to process data in real time, while leveraging cloud and edge computing technologies for efficient data storage and rapid local processing.

The integration of sophisticated algorithms is essential for improving demand forecasts, optimizing distribution networks, and dynamically adjusting supply to meet changing market conditions. By combining descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive analytics, stakeholders can gain valuable insights into the intricate complexities of the supply chain, enabling them to make informed, data-driven decisions and drive continuous process improvement. To further enhance operational efficiency and sustainability, the integrated system employs advanced deep learning algorithms to analyze the wealth of data generated by IoT sensors and blockchain transactions, unlocking deeper, more nuanced understandings of the supply chain’s dynamics and facilitating more agile, responsive, and optimized decision-making.

This holistic approach, leveraging the synergies between IoT, cloud and edge computing, advanced analytics, and deep learning, empowers stakeholders to navigate the challenges of the green hydrogen supply chain with increased precision, resilience, and responsiveness, ultimately driving greater operational efficiency, transparency, and sustainability across the entire ecosystem.

3.2.3. Renewable Feedstock for Green Hydrogen

Green hydrogen is produced from renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic and wind turbine systems. Internet of Things devices continuously monitor the production of this green hydrogen, allowing the optimization of its use in response to fluctuating climate conditions and real-time energy demands. The real-time data collected by IoT sensors enables the supply chain to dynamically adjust production and distribution to meet changing energy needs, minimizing waste and ensuring the efficient utilization of green hydrogen.

Furthermore, blockchain technology is leveraged to certify each kilowatt-hour of renewable energy with secure digital certificates, guaranteeing that hydrogen is produced from sources that comply with the highest environmental standards. This blockchain-based certification process not only ensures the traceability and transparency of the green hydrogen supply chain but also facilitates seamless transactions between stakeholders through the use of smart contracts. These smart contracts automate the trading and settlement of green hydrogen, enabling frictionless collaboration and building trust among the various supply chain participants.

3.2.4. Green Hydrogen Production

Electrolysis, powered by renewable energy, is the core process in green hydrogen production. It transforms water into hydrogen and oxygen through a highly efficient electrochemical reaction. The Internet of Things plays a crucial role at this stage, ensuring maximum operational efficiency by continuously monitoring the electrolysis equipment in real time and enabling predictive maintenance capabilities. This allows for proactive identification and resolution of potential issues, minimizing downtime and optimizing the production process.

Furthermore, blockchain technology is leveraged to meticulously record every step of the electrolysis process, creating an immutable and transparent record that can be accessed by all stakeholders. This blockchain-based traceability ensures the quality and provenance of the produced green hydrogen, building trust and accountability throughout the supply chain.

3.2.5. Green Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen is stored in gaseous or liquid form, with specialized storage tanks designed to handle the unique properties and requirements of hydrogen. These tanks are equipped with a network of Internet of Things sensors that continuously monitor critical parameters such as hydrogen levels, pressure, and temperature in real time. This real-time data monitoring and analysis helps to reduce the risks of potential leakage or other safety concerns, while also enabling the optimization of storage capacities and operational efficiency.

Furthermore, blockchain technology is utilized to trace every movement and transaction associated with the stored hydrogen, ensuring transparent and reliable inventory management across the supply chain. Smart contracts, integrated with the blockchain system, automate the stock replenishment process based on predictive demand forecasts, leveraging advanced data analytics to anticipate and respond to evolving hydrogen consumption patterns. This integrated approach enhances the overall resilience, traceability, and responsiveness of the hydrogen storage and distribution network.

3.2.6. Green Hydrogen Distribution

The distribution of green hydrogen is optimized through the integration of advanced technologies, such as the Internet of Things and blockchain. IoT sensors continuously monitor the transportation of hydrogen in real time, ensuring the safe and efficient delivery of the product. These sensors track critical parameters like vehicle location, temperature, pressure, and any potential leaks, allowing for proactive monitoring and quick response to any issues that may arise.

Moreover, blockchain technology is leveraged to create a comprehensive and transparent record of every step in the delivery process. Each transaction, from loading to unloading, is recorded on the blockchain, providing consumers with the ability to verify the origin and quality of the hydrogen they receive. This blockchain-based traceability system empowers consumers to access detailed information about the provenance and journey of the green hydrogen they are purchasing, fostering trust and accountability throughout the supply chain.

3.2.7. End User

Green hydrogen has emerged as a versatile and environmentally friendly energy source, powering a wide range of applications from transportation to electricity storage and beyond. The integration of Internet of Things technology enables the collection of real-time data on end-user consumption patterns, allowing for refined forecasting and agile adaptation of supply to meet evolving demand. This data-driven approach ensures that the production and distribution of green hydrogen are closely aligned with the dynamic needs of various end users, maximizing efficiency and minimizing waste.

Furthermore, the deployment of blockchain technology secures the transactions associated with green hydrogen, while also providing consumers with transparent access to detailed information about the origin, production process, and quality of the hydrogen they are utilizing. This comprehensive technological ecosystem, combining the power of IoT and blockchain, ensures the optimization and traceability of the entire green hydrogen supply chain, fostering trust and enabling sustainable energy solutions for a wide variety of end users, from individual households to large-scale industrial operations.

4. Proposed Framework

Figure 4 is the proposed architecture that presents a multi-layered system designed to optimize the management and distribution of green hydrogen through the integration of blockchain and IoT technologies. At its foundation, the IoT Sensors Asset Network Layer enables real-time data acquisition from hydrogen producers, storage facilities, and delivery services, capturing critical operational metrics such as production volumes, storage conditions, and transport logistics. This unprocessed data is transmitted from the IoT layer to the Hydrogen Blockchain Service Network Layer through IoT gateways or edge computing devices, which may also function as oracles—secure intermediaries that facilitate the integration of real-world sensor data into the blockchain infrastructure, where it is securely stored in an immutable ledger and processed by a dedicated blockchain-based management application. This application comprises modules for hydrogen production, storage, data analysis, and delivery, each mapped to distinct blocks within the blockchain.

Above this, the Hydrogen Predictions Layer leverages machine learning and deep learning techniques to support applications such as hydrogen consumption forecasting and dynamic pricing to generate decision-support insights. These insights are then relayed to the Participants Layer, where operational stakeholders—referred to as operational in charge—can access the processed data via secure API endpoints or user interfaces provided by the system. These interfaces connect them to both the analytics output from the Hydrogen Predictions Layer and historical data from the blockchain layer, enabling them to guide their strategic decision-making in real time.

This multidirectional data flow enables a decentralized, transparent, and intelligent hydrogen supply chain that supports real-time responsiveness, efficient resource utilization, and a foundational structure for a decentralized green hydrogen market.

This architecture directly supports the idea of a decentralized hydrogen stock market or supply chain by providing trust through blockchain immutability, enabling transparency in hydrogen production, storage, and delivery, allowing data-driven optimization of supply and demand, and supporting autonomous and dynamic pricing based on real-time conditions.

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. Results

This study assesses Morocco’s strategic positioning as a key player in green hydrogen through the “What-If Analysis” simulation method. This approach explores various scenarios to measure the impact of integrating IoT and blockchain technologies into the supply chain. By adjusting parameters such as reducing logistics losses or implementing certifications, it allows a detailed analysis of potential economic and environmental gains. As [24] indicate, this methodology is essential for testing complex systems in uncertain contexts. It offers decision-makers a valuable tool to anticipate benefits, constraints, and impacts on sustainability and operational performance. The integration of blockchain and IoT technologies within the green hydrogen supply chain provides an immutable and transparent ledger, which is paramount for verifying the provenance, tracking the custody, and assuring the quality of the hydrogen produced. This facilitates adherence to and compliance with rigorous international certification standards, delivering significant strategic benefits. By automating transactions, minimizing human errors, and optimizing logistics processes, the blockchain-based architecture and IoT sensors enhance the overall efficiency and responsiveness of the green hydrogen supply chain. This synergistic integration can unlock greater operational cost savings, improved profitability, and enhanced global competitiveness for Morocco’s green hydrogen ambitions.

5.1.1. Blockchain: Traceability and Automation

In the Moroccan context, blockchain ensures complete traceability and increased transparency in the green hydrogen supply chain through its immutable ledger, strengthening trust between actors. Smart contracts automate transactions, minimize human errors, and optimize logistics processes, as demonstrated by [25].This automation of transactions, logistics processes, and demand response through smart contracts and the blockchain’s immutable ledger significantly improves the overall efficiency and responsiveness of Morocco’s green hydrogen supply chain. By minimizing human errors and optimizing processes, the blockchain-based architecture enhances the supply chain’s agility in adapting to fluctuations in hydrogen demand, ultimately leading to more efficient and sustainable green hydrogen production and distribution in Morocco.

5.1.2. IoT: Real-Time Monitoring and Data Accuracy

IoT technology provides real-time monitoring of critical parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow rate) at various stages of the hydrogen supply chain, ensuring data accuracy and preventing fraud. This real-time monitoring and data accuracy from IoT devices provides critical information for optimizing the overall performance of Morocco’s green hydrogen supply chain. Real-time monitoring of temperature, pressure, flow rate, and environmental conditions is essential for maintaining the integrity of hydrogen and ensuring safe and efficient operations. The study of [26] discusses safety assessments and monitoring, particularly regarding hydrogen generation and the prevention of over pressurization and combustion risks during chemical processes.

5.1.3. Green Hydrogen: Production, Storage, and Distribution

Green hydrogen, produced by electrolysis with renewable energies, constitutes a sustainable energy alternative. It is stored in gaseous or liquid form before being distributed by trucks or pipelines, according to high safety and efficiency standards [27]. This model optimizes the management of this resource while meeting the requirements of modern markets. The strategic incorporation of green hydrogen into existing energy infrastructures catalyzes a transition away from conventional fossil fuels, fostering energy diversification and substantially mitigating carbon emissions, which is crucial for achieving a cleaner and more ecologically sustainable energy paradigm [8]. The viability of a green hydrogen economy depends on the synergistic relationship between several critical components: the use of renewable energy to power electrolysis for hydrogen production, the implementation of robust storage technologies to preserve hydrogen’s energy content, and the establishment of flexible distribution systems. To fully unlock the transformative potential of green hydrogen within the global decarbonization landscape, Morocco’s leading strategy in the context of a concerted focus on the synergistic integration of these key elements is paramount, thereby ensuring streamlined and reliable delivery to end users and simultaneously solidifying its indispensable role in advancing worldwide sustainability objectives.

5.1.4. Case Study: Morocco’s Potential in Renewable Energy Using IoT and Blockchain

Morocco is establishing itself as a strategic player in the energy transition thanks to its major renewable infrastructures, including the Noor solar complex and the Tarfaya wind farm. These projects illustrate its potential to produce green hydrogen on a large scale and become a regional export hub, leveraging its abundant solar and wind resources. In light of its expanding renewable energy infrastructure, particularly the Noor solar complex and the Tarfaya wind farm, Morocco is strategically aiming to cement its position as a pivotal, forward-thinking nation in the realm of green hydrogen production and export. According to a recent report by the International Energy Agency, Morocco is well-positioned to contribute to global efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 °C by 2050, with its ambitious renewable energy targets and plans to develop a robust green hydrogen economy. Furthermore, a study by the International Renewable Energy Agency highlights Morocco’s global leadership in the energy transition, noting that the country is “well on its way to achieving its goal of generating 52% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2030”. With its growing renewable energy capacities, Morocco aims to become a regional leader in green hydrogen. However, challenges persist in terms of traceability, efficiency, and transparency within the supply chain. This simulation assesses the benefits of integrating blockchain and IoT technologies to

• Enhance traceability to reduce losses and strengthen partner trust.
• Optimize logistics to lower operational costs and lead times.
• Guarantee ecological certification to position green hydrogen on international markets through verifiable means.

5.1.5. Green Certifications Using Blockchain and IoT

Securing green certifications is paramount for verifying the environmental sustainability and integrity of hydrogen production, and blockchain technology is uniquely positioned to play a transformative role in this domain by providing an immutable and transparent ledger for tracking the entire lifecycle of green hydrogen. Through the seamless integration of IoT devices, granular data pertaining to critical parameters like renewable energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and water usage can be continuously monitored and immutably recorded, which is critical in ensuring the veracity and dependability of green certification claims. This is echoed in [28], which highlights how blockchain’s decentralized ledger system redefines certification processes by meticulously documenting each step of clean hydrogen production with unique cryptographic identifiers. Similarly, [6] discusses designing a blockchain-based certification system specifically for the EU hydrogen market, emphasizing blockchain’s capacity for trustworthy and secure information sharing between stakeholders. This system facilitates information gathering, verification, and reporting, contributing to the advancement of sustainable energy practices. The use of blockchain for certification not only enhances transparency but also strengthens accountability and builds consumer trust in the green credentials of hydrogen [14].

By adopting these technologies, Morocco could optimize its supply chain and become a key player in the global energy transition, combining economic competitiveness and environmental sustainability.

Table 1. Key assumptions of the simulation.

Metric	Source/Study	Justification/Reasoning
Production Capacity (10,000 t/year)	IRESEN and MASEN Roadmaps; Moroccan–German PtX Alliance	This represents the production target for a medium-scale demonstration project, in line with Morocco’s national green hydrogen development strategy and current bilateral initiatives (e.g., with Germany).
Selling Price (USD 5000/ton)	IEA (2023), IRENA Reports (2022), BNEF Hydrogen Outlook	The USD 5000 per ton selling price is based on estimates from the IEA (2023), IRENA (2022), and BNEF Hydrogen Outlook, which project this price range as reflective of the average export price for green hydrogen to the European Union. This figure is considered conservative, accounting for both current market conditions and future cost reduction potential due to Morocco’s renewable energy resources and the maturing of hydrogen production technologies.
Production Cost (USD 3500/ton)	IRENA Green Hydrogen Cost Outlook, Moroccan Green H2 Feasibility Studies	This matches the expected cost before 2030 for Moroccan renewable-powered electrolysis.
Logistics Loss (5%)	Hydrogen Council (2022), DNV Hydrogen Transport White Paper	The 5% logistics loss figure is based on the Hydrogen Council (2022) and DNV Hydrogen Transport White Paper (2022), which both highlight that compression, liquefaction, and long-distance transport contribute to typical hydrogen losses. These losses result from the energy-intensive nature of compression and liquefaction processes, as well as potential leaks during transport, making 5% a reasonable estimate for the hydrogen logistics supply chain, particularly for international shipments.
IoT Logistics Loss (2%)	Siemens Smart Logistics, Shell H2 Infrastructure Pilot	The 2% reduction in logistics loss comes from the integration of IoT technologies, such as real-time monitoring, sensor-based tracking, and predictive maintenance. According to studies like Siemens Smart Logistics and the Shell H2 Infrastructure Pilot, IoT improves asset management, reduces spillage and downtime, and helps optimize routing, leading to a reduction in logistics inefficiencies and hydrogen losses during transport.
Certification Loss (7%)	Hydrogen Europe, DNV Certification Standards, IBM Food Trust Studies	The 7% certification loss estimate reflects the portion of hydrogen that is rejected or fails certification due to poor traceability or data gaps in traditional systems. This figure is aligned with studies from Hydrogen Europe, DNV Certification Standards, and IBM Food Trust, which show that up to 7–10% of hydrogen can be rejected due to insufficient data and weak traceability in the certification process.
Blockchain Cert. Loss (1%)	IBM Blockchain, VeChain Energy Logistics Pilot, Deloitte Smart Contracts Report	The 1% certification loss estimate under blockchain technology reflects the near-zero loss due to secure and tamper-proof traceability throughout the hydrogen supply chain. This is enabled by blockchain’s decentralized ledger and smart contracts, which reduce data gaps, errors, and inefficiencies in traditional systems. This figure is supported by studies such as IBM Blockchain, the VeChain Energy Logistics Pilot, and the Deloitte Smart Contracts Report, which show a significant reduction in certification rejections with blockchain-based systems.
Operating Cost (USD 500,000/year)	Fraunhofer Institute, Moroccan Pilot Budget Benchmarks (e.g., Green H2@NOOR Project)	The USD 500,000 annual operating cost estimate is based on benchmarks from projects like the Green H2@NOOR in Morocco and research by the Fraunhofer Institute, which suggests that such costs are typical for facilities of this size. These costs encompass water treatment, labor, and maintenance, ensuring efficient and continuous operation of a green hydrogen production facility.
CAPEX IoT (USD 1M)	McKinsey Smart Industry Report, Bosch Connected Industry Case Studies	The USD 1 million estimate for CAPEX related to IoT deployment reflects the combined costs of sensor installation, network infrastructure, and the integration of IoT data platforms. This estimate aligns with industry benchmarks, such as those outlined in the McKinsey Smart Industry Report and Bosch Connected Industry case studies, which detail the capital expenditure required for industrial-scale IoT solutions.
CAPEX Blockchain (USD 800K)	ConsenSys Ethereum Enterprise Estimates, IBM Blockchain for Supply Chain Reports	The USD 800K estimate for blockchain implementation covers the comprehensive costs of establishing a private blockchain network, hosting blockchain nodes, and developing smart contracts. This aligns with industry standards as described in ConsenSys Ethereum Enterprise estimates and IBM’s Blockchain for Supply Chain reports, which outline similar expenditures for enterprise-grade blockchain solutions in supply chain and certification contexts.
Energy Cost (USD 700/ton)	Masen + ONEE Reports, Morocco Solar/Wind LCOE Reports	The USD 700 per ton energy cost estimate is based on the renewable energy price of approximately USD 0.03 per kWh in Morocco, as reported in Masen, ONEE, and LCOE studies. It reflects the energy required for the electrolysis process to produce green hydrogen, factoring in electrolysis efficiency and Morocco’s competitive renewable energy prices.
System Downtime (20 h → 5 h)	Schneider Electric IoT Maintenance Studies, TotalEnergies Pilot, WEF Smart Plants	The reduction in system downtime from 20 h to 5 h annually is driven by the integration of IoT for predictive maintenance and blockchain for data integrity and automation. IoT sensors enable early issue detection, while blockchain ensures secure and transparent data for efficient decision-making. Industry pilots, such as TotalEnergies and Schneider Electric, have demonstrated that these technologies can reduce downtime by more than 75% in similar facilities, improving operational efficiency.
+20% Production Boost (post-tech)	BCG Digital Operations, WEF Digital Twin Study, IBM Watson IoT Manufacturing Use Cases	The +20% production boost is based on the application of IoT, blockchain, and digital twin technologies, which collectively improve resource utilization, reduce bottlenecks, and optimize production processes. Industry studies and use cases, such as those from BCG, IBM Watson IoT, and the WEF Digital Twin Study, have shown that these technologies can increase production efficiency by up to 20% in similar settings by enhancing operational visibility, predictive maintenance, and workflow optimization.
Estimated Implementation Cost	Internal Estimate	Based on the aggregation of all CAPEX and operational costs, as well as the implementation of IoT and blockchain technologies, the estimated implementation cost is approximately USD 5.5M. This includes the costs for establishing production capacity, deploying IoT and blockchain technologies, and covering initial operating and certification expenses.

provides the key assumptions of the simulation.

To assess the impact of technologies on supply chain gains, three scenarios were simulated:

• The first scenario does not consider either blockchain or IoT.
• Scenario two considers the integration of IoT.
• Scenario three considers the integration of IoT and blockchain as support technologies for the green hydrogen supply chain.

Simulation conducted through this study demonstrates that integrating Internet of Things and blockchain technologies into the green hydrogen supply chain yields significant economic benefits, primarily by reducing logistics losses and enhancing the certification process. The “What-If Analysis” evaluates various scenarios to quantify the impact of these technologies on the supply chain’s performance. By implementing blockchain technology, which secures data and optimizes logistics, the study anticipates a notable decrease in certification losses, potentially reducing them from an estimated 7% to a mere 1%. This is crucial, given that the European Union plans to import approximately ten million tons of hydrogen by 2030, highlighting the essential role of efficient and credible certification systems in the expanding hydrogen economy.

Despite an initial approximate USD 4M to USD 5M investment required to implement these technologies, the cumulative gains over time demonstrate the economic viability of this integration. Integrating IoT and blockchain solutions ensures a rapid and sustainable return on investment, making the green hydrogen supply chain more efficient, transparent, and commercially viable in the long run.

Table 1 outlines the key assumptions used in the simulation, such as production capacity, average selling price, production cost, and current logistics losses, which serve as important inputs for evaluating the potential impact of these technological integrations. The metrics provided include CAPEX IoT for IoT deployment, which covers sensor installation, network infrastructure, and platform integration; CAPEX Blockchain, accounting for the setup of a private blockchain, node hosting, and smart contract development; and Operating Cost, which includes expenses related to water treatment, labor, and maintenance. Additionally, the Energy Cost reflects the cost for producing green hydrogen using renewable energy. Production Cost is related to the cost for hydrogen production. Logistics Loss, IoT Logistics Loss, and Certification Loss are covered within the respective energy, production, and blockchain processes, and therefore, no separate charges are added for them.

Table 2. Scenario analysis: green hydrogen supply chain optimization with IoT and blockchain.

KPIs	Baseline	Scenario 1: IoT	Scenario 2: Blockchain + IoT
Total Production (tons/year)	10,000	10,000	10,000
Logistics Losses	5% (500 t)	2% (200 t)	2% (200 t)
Net Production (tons/year)	9500	9800	9800
Revenue (millions, USD)	47.5	49	49
Production Cost (millions, USD)	35.0	35.0	35.0
Energy Cost (millions, USD)	7.0	7.0	7.0
Operating Cost (millions, USD)	0.5	0.5	0.5
Certification Losses (millions, USD)	0.475 (10%)	0.49 (10%)	0 (0%)
Net Profit (millions, USD)	4.525	6.01	6.5
Net Gain (over 5 years)	22.625	30.05	32.5

presents a comparative scenario analysis evaluating the impact of IoT and blockchain integration on the green hydrogen supply chain. The results demonstrate that incorporating IoT significantly reduces logistics losses, leading to an increase in net production. Furthermore, the integration of both IoT and blockchain eliminates certification losses, thereby enhancing net profit and long-term financial gains. This highlights the potential of digital technologies to optimize operational efficiency and economic performance in sustainable hydrogen production.

Thus, the various simulations have shown.

The adoption of IoT and blockchain technologies presents a transformative opportunity for Morocco’s green hydrogen supply chain. By addressing inefficiencies in both logistics and certification, these digital tools allow for enhanced control, real-time visibility, and greater precision in managing the production and delivery of green hydrogen.

In particular, the implementation of IoT solutions significantly reduces logistics losses from 5% to 2%, resulting in an additional 300 tons of hydrogen reaching the market annually. This improvement not only boosts net production from 9500 to 9800 tons but also increases revenue by USD 1.5 million per year, underscoring the financial and operational value of IoT integration.

Moreover, the introduction of blockchain-based certification eliminates the 10% revenue loss traditionally associated with manual or unreliable certification systems. This ensures that 100% of the hydrogen produced is marketable at premium prices, leading to an additional USD 0.49 million gain per year in the blockchain-integrated scenario. Combined with IoT, the synergy of both technologies raises the annual net profit to USD 6.5 million, with a cumulative 5-year gain of USD 32.5 million—representing a 43.6% increase over the baseline.

Beyond profit maximization, these innovations enhance Morocco’s position as a credible and competitive actor in the global green energy market. Transparent certification and reduced losses contribute to environmental credibility, offering a sustainable and attractive value proposition for international buyers.

Nonetheless, these benefits come with the need to overcome technological and financial barriers, including the high capital expenditure for deployment, the requirement for interoperable standards, and the need for robust regulatory support. Yet the long-term strategic advantages—improved efficiency, environmental stewardship, and market competitiveness—make the integration of IoT and blockchain an essential lever for the successful scaling of Morocco’s green hydrogen initiative.

5.2. Discussion

The integration of blockchain and IoT technologies holds significant potential to improve the transparency and efficiency of processes within the green hydrogen supply chain. By optimizing production and distribution through automation, these technologies can reduce costs, limit human errors, and ensure more precise resource management. However, this model faces several important constraints that must be addressed. One of the most significant impediments is the substantial upfront capital investment required for deploying the necessary technological infrastructure, including advanced sensors, secure network systems, and sophisticated blockchain platforms.

Another key constraint is the high costs associated with implementing these technological solutions. Integrating blockchain and IoT requires significant upfront investments, which can pose a barrier to widespread adoption, especially for smaller market players. Additionally, the lack of standardized technological protocols and interoperability between different systems can slow down large-scale adoption. Establishing common standards and ensuring seamless integration across supply chain components are crucial for unlocking the full potential of these technologies.

Moreover, the high costs associated with the deployment and maintenance of these advanced technologies can be a significant barrier, especially for smaller players in the green hydrogen market. Overcoming this challenge may require innovative financing models, strategic partnerships, or government incentives to support the adoption of these transformative solutions. Furthermore, thorough field studies to validate assumptions and adjust models based on real-world data are essential. This will allow for the refinement of strategies and maximization of anticipated benefits, ensuring that the integration of blockchain and IoT technologies delivers on its promise of improved transparency, efficiency, and profitability within the green hydrogen supply chain.

6. Conclusions

The integrated blockchain–IoT approach has the potential to significantly transform and optimize the green hydrogen supply chain, especially in Morocco’s case. By leveraging the capabilities of these cutting-edge technologies, this integrated solution offers numerous benefits, including enhanced sustainable resource management, improved ecological compliance, and increased traceability and accountability to meet growing international requirements.

To fully realize the anticipated advantages of this approach, a comprehensive field study is essential. Such a study will validate the underlying assumptions and adjust the models based on Morocco’s real-world data. This crucial step will help refine the strategies and maximize the anticipated benefits, ensuring that the integration of blockchain and IoT technologies delivers on its promise of improved transparency, efficiency, and profitability within the green hydrogen supply chain.

In addition to the immediate operational improvements, future research should also explore the long-term economic impact of this approach. Assessing the overall profitability and financial sustainability of the integrated blockchain–IoT system will provide valuable insights to guide further refinements and investments.

Furthermore, the integration of artificial intelligence could unlock even greater optimization potential. By combining the capabilities of blockchain, IoT, and AI, the supply chain can achieve more accurate and responsive decision-making, enabling further enhancements in process optimization and efficiency. This synergistic integration would open new perspectives to maximize the overall efficiency and competitiveness of the green hydrogen supply chain.