Journal Description
Materials Proceedings
Materials Proceedings
is an open access journal dedicated to publishing findings resulting from conferences, workshops, and similar events, in all areas of material sciences. The conference organizers and proceedings editors are responsible for managing the peer-review process and selecting papers for conference proceedings.
Latest Articles
Utilization of Stone Wool Kiln Ash in Cement-Based Materials
Mater. Proc. 2023, 15(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2023015089 - 5 Aug 2024
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The main goal of this study was to validate a circular production route utilizing the waste ash generated during stone wool production in cementitious binders. To achieve this goal, two types of waste ash with different compositions and particle sizes were used. The
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The main goal of this study was to validate a circular production route utilizing the waste ash generated during stone wool production in cementitious binders. To achieve this goal, two types of waste ash with different compositions and particle sizes were used. The performance evaluation results showed that silica-based ashes exhibit pozzolanic behavior, reduce the amount of portlandite, and can improve the strength of the mortar even at early ages. The ashes increased the initial setting time regardless of their composition. The outcomes of this study create an economic value for large volumes of material of previously zero value.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Environmental Product Declaration Reporting in the Metal Sector
by
Maria Vastardi, Eugenia Filtikaki, George Mavraganis and Katerina Adam
Mater. Proc. 2023, 15(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2023015088 - 22 Jul 2024
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In an increasingly globalized and sustainability-conscious market, the environmental attributes of products consist of the information of primary importance for the sustainable development of manufacturing companies. The aim of the paper is to statistically analyze the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) reports that have
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In an increasingly globalized and sustainability-conscious market, the environmental attributes of products consist of the information of primary importance for the sustainable development of manufacturing companies. The aim of the paper is to statistically analyze the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) reports that have resulted from Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) in the metal products industry based on two parameters: (i) the geographical scope and (ii) the category of the product. During recent years, EPDs have been developed as a tool for the carbon footprint assessment of products; however, they not yet very widely applied by metal-manufacturing companies and/or requested by key stakeholders as customers. Moreover, in the metal industry, the use of EPD reports is not yet as widespread as in other industrial segments such as plastics. The present article is based on the EPD Library of the official website of the International EPD System (Environdec) and the published EPDs of the Institut Bauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). Data were extracted, and the relevant information was compiled by using the available filters of the EPD and the IBU Libraries. Based on these data, the number of EPD reports issued by manufacturing companies was examined as per country of origin and product category.
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Open AccessEditorial
Statement of Peer Review
by
Sofia Javed, Waheed Miran, Erum Pervaiz and Iftikhar Ahmad
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017002 - 22 Jul 2024
Abstract
In submitting conference proceedings to Materials Proceedings, the volume editors of the proceedings certify to the publisher that all papers published in this volume have been subjected to peer review administered by the volume editors [...]
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Evaluation of Thiosulfate for Gold Recovery from Pressure Oxidation Residues
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Christiana Mystrioti, Konstantina Kousta, Nymphodora Papassiopi, Katerina Adam, Maria Taxiarchou and Ioannis Paspaliaris
Mater. Proc. 2023, 15(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2023015087 - 6 Jun 2024
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This paper investigated the potential of thiosulfate as an alternative to cyanide for gold recovery from pressure oxidation residues. Thiosulfate leaching experiments were conducted under controlled conditions, varying parameters such as initial thiosulfate concentration, initial pH, temperature and solid–liquid mixing ratio (S/L). The
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This paper investigated the potential of thiosulfate as an alternative to cyanide for gold recovery from pressure oxidation residues. Thiosulfate leaching experiments were conducted under controlled conditions, varying parameters such as initial thiosulfate concentration, initial pH, temperature and solid–liquid mixing ratio (S/L). The results indicate that thiosulfate demonstrates promising gold recovery rates, with optimization potential through parameter adjustments. This study aimed to provide valuable insights into the feasibility of adopting thiosulfate as a gold recovery agent, promoting environmentally responsible practices in the metallurgical industry while addressing the challenges associated with pressure oxidation residues.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Comparative Study of Conical and Cylindrical Basins for Gravitational Water Vortex Turbines
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Usman Zafar, Waqas Javid, Furqan Jamil, Shahid Iqbal, Sikander Ahmed, Abdul Aziz and Tayyab Mehmood
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017030 - 6 May 2024
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The demand for energy is gradually increasing; governments are looking for affordable and long-lasting solutions. Hydropower is crucial for addressing this issue. Low-head hydropower stations are necessary in certain regions due to their geographical position. Gravitational water vortex turbines are an alternative for
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The demand for energy is gradually increasing; governments are looking for affordable and long-lasting solutions. Hydropower is crucial for addressing this issue. Low-head hydropower stations are necessary in certain regions due to their geographical position. Gravitational water vortex turbines are an alternative for these low-head turbines. They use the water’s tangential flow to create a vortex, converting mechanical energy to kinetic energy. The design of turbine blades and basins using SolidWorks and CFD analysis was carried out during this research. CFD investigation showed that the conical basin had a higher exit velocity than the cylindrical basin, indicating a successful design.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Mining and Mineral Exploration Projects within the Natura 2000 Area: Case Studies from Northern Finland
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Toni Eerola, Nike Luodes and Hannu Panttila
Mater. Proc. 2023, 15(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2023015086 - 24 Apr 2024
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The Rompas–Prajapat (Au-Co) and Sakatti (Ni-Cu-PGE) mineral deposits are among the only important discoveries of the last few decades in Finland. Both are partially located in Natura 2000 areas, which are among the most sensitive land use contexts in which mining and mineral
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The Rompas–Prajapat (Au-Co) and Sakatti (Ni-Cu-PGE) mineral deposits are among the only important discoveries of the last few decades in Finland. Both are partially located in Natura 2000 areas, which are among the most sensitive land use contexts in which mining and mineral disputes have emerged in Finland. Consequently, the project holders apply low-impact mineral exploration technologies and practice active stakeholder engagement and communication. In fact, projects seem to be mostly favored by local populations. However, because of their association with protected areas (and uranium in the case of Rompas), projects are opposed by non-governmental organizations, as well as by reindeer herders in the case of Sakatti. Project holders perform feasibility studies and environmental impact assessments. Mining licenses are applied under a new Finnish mining act and the European Union’s Raw Materials acts.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Enhanced Supercapacitor Performance through the Synergistic Effects of a Biomass-Derived Activated Carbon and Electrochemically Deposited Polyaniline Composite
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Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Abdul Aziz and Munetaka Oyama
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017029 - 24 Apr 2024
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This research delves into asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC) design, utilizing activated carbon from bamboo poles (AC) and electrodeposited polyaniline (PANI) on nickel foam (NF) as key active components. The composite electrode formed from AC and PANI exhibited enhanced electrochemical attributes in various electrochemical configurations.
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This research delves into asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC) design, utilizing activated carbon from bamboo poles (AC) and electrodeposited polyaniline (PANI) on nickel foam (NF) as key active components. The composite electrode formed from AC and PANI exhibited enhanced electrochemical attributes in various electrochemical configurations. The specified ASC, PANI@AC/NF//AC/NF, demonstrated a potential of 1.8 V. Impressively, it reached an areal capacitance measuring 423 mF/cm2, coupled with an energy density of 190 µWh/cm2 at a power density of 900 µW/cm2, and maintained ~82% capacitance after 5000 GCD cycles. Notably, our developed ASC presents outstanding research potential for scholars and scientists.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Effect of Annealing Temperature on the Morphology, Structure and Optical Properties of Spin-Coated SnO2 Films for Solar Cell Application
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Sumbal Hakeem, Saqib Ali, Muhammad Arman Liaqat, Ayesha Jamshed, Maryam Basit, Muhammad Talha Masood and Sofia Javed
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017028 - 24 Apr 2024
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Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly become a hot area of research in the photovoltaic field due to their (e.g., 26.2%), ease of fabrication, and low cost. Over the last decade the electron transport layer (ETL) has been one of the most critical
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Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly become a hot area of research in the photovoltaic field due to their (e.g., 26.2%), ease of fabrication, and low cost. Over the last decade the electron transport layer (ETL) has been one of the most critical elements in achieving high-performing solar cells, necessitating a higher electron mobility and superior charge extraction ability. Consequently, there is a significant demand for an improved ETL that is not only cost-effective but also exhibits high charge extraction and mobility, particularly in the context of planar solar cell architecture. Tin Oxide (SnO2) has emerged as one of the most promising high-performance inorganic ETLs suitable for PSCs. In this work, we synthesize solution-processed SnO2. The spin-coated SnO2 thin films undergo annealing at relatively low temperatures ranging from 130 °C to 180 °C and various characterization tools are employed for the evaluation of thin films.
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Fabrication of 2-D Nanosheets of NbSe2 via Liquid Phase Exfoliation and Their Morphological, Structural, and Optical Characterization
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Ayesha Jamshed, Maryam Basit, Saqib Ali, Sumbal Hakeem, Muhammad Arman Liaqat, Fatima Jamshed, Rahim Jan and Sofia Javed
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017027 - 24 Apr 2024
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The present work is on the synthesis and investigation of the structural, optical, and optoelectrical properties of NbSe2 as an efficient material for energy conversion applications. The liquid phase exfoliation method was employed for the synthesis of 2D nanosheets from the bulk
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The present work is on the synthesis and investigation of the structural, optical, and optoelectrical properties of NbSe2 as an efficient material for energy conversion applications. The liquid phase exfoliation method was employed for the synthesis of 2D nanosheets from the bulk NbSe2 at different exfoliation levels. SEM was used to confirm the physical dimensions of the nanosheets, while XRD was used to verify the structural retention of hexagonal nanosheets. The results demonstrate that high-quality, single-crystalline NbSe2 nanosheets with a size of ≈1 μm in the lateral dimension and ≈6–12 nm thick were obtained. The 2D nanosheets will be further explored for energy storage and conversion applications.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Alternative Resources of Rare Earth Elements in Pakistan
by
Muhammad Daniel Saeed Pirzada
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017026 - 23 Apr 2024
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Rare earth elements (REEs) have emerged as strategic elements. Due to their unique electronic and magnetic properties, REEs have extensive applications in modern-day technologies. Two aspects make the supply chain of REEs very critical: first, more than ~85% of the global rare earth
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Rare earth elements (REEs) have emerged as strategic elements. Due to their unique electronic and magnetic properties, REEs have extensive applications in modern-day technologies. Two aspects make the supply chain of REEs very critical: first, more than ~85% of the global rare earth elements are processed by China alone; second, presently, hardly any substitute materials exist for these elements. The supply chain of these elements is vulnerable because of the Chinese monopoly on rare earth resources. These circumstances drove researchers to explore alternative resources for these elements. This article reviews the prospective alternative resources of REEs. Based on the available resources and technical experience, a road map has also been suggested.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Lignin-Derived Materials for Sustainable Development of Ionic Thermoelectric Supercapacitors
by
Muhammad Muddasar, Mario Culebras and Maurice N. Collins
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017025 - 23 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lignin, a paper and pulp industry waste product, has attracted significant attention in recent years as a promising sustainable material for high-end energy applications. Herein, we examine lignin as a potential material for ionic thermoelectric hydrogels and carbon-based materials. Optimized lignin-derived hydrogels demonstrate
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Lignin, a paper and pulp industry waste product, has attracted significant attention in recent years as a promising sustainable material for high-end energy applications. Herein, we examine lignin as a potential material for ionic thermoelectric hydrogels and carbon-based materials. Optimized lignin-derived hydrogels demonstrate a remarkable Seebeck coefficient of 3.63 mV/K when subjected to an axial temperature gradient. Furthermore, synthesized lignin-based porous carbon materials exhibit exceptional performance as supercapacitor electrodes, with a superior specific capacitance of 56.3 F/g at 0.5 A/g. Lignin-based hydrogels and porous carbon electrodes offer a promising path towards the development of lignin-derived ionic thermoelectric supercapacitors.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Photovoltaic Performance of TiO2 Nanotubes Anodized under Different Voltages
by
Tayyaba Ghani, Mazhar Mehmood, Hira Kanwal, Muniba Yaseen Naz and Shazia Bashir
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017024 - 22 Apr 2024
Abstract
The present study was conducted to develop highly ordered facile TiO2 nanotubes (TiNTs) at two different applied voltages using two-step electrochemical anodization for the application in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The nanotube fabrication is carried out in an aqueous electrolyte containing ethylene
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The present study was conducted to develop highly ordered facile TiO2 nanotubes (TiNTs) at two different applied voltages using two-step electrochemical anodization for the application in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The nanotube fabrication is carried out in an aqueous electrolyte containing ethylene glycol and ammonium fluoride at 40 V and 60 V fixed applied potentials. Nanotubes synthesized at 40 V are comparatively uniform and smoother, whereas a rough top surface is observed at 60 V. The photovoltaic efficiency achieved for the device based on TiNTs prepared at 40 V is 0.84% which is higher than the efficiency achieved for the 60 V device. This work highlights the importance of ordered nanotubes for efficient devices.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Fuel Composites Development Using Cow Dung and Agricultural Biomass
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Muhammad Tufail Anwar, Nehar Ullah, Saifullah Khalid, Naeem Ahmad and Muhammad Shahzeb Khan
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017023 - 22 Apr 2024
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A sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, cow dung is a renewable energy source that might considerably lower carbon emissions. By modifying its characteristics, such as its gross calorific value (GCV), it could be utilized as a flexible and effective fuel for both industrial
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A sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, cow dung is a renewable energy source that might considerably lower carbon emissions. By modifying its characteristics, such as its gross calorific value (GCV), it could be utilized as a flexible and effective fuel for both industrial and domestic use. To create a fuel composite with a higher heating value, this research examines the heating values and proximate analysis of local cow dung as well as the effects of blending it with agricultural waste. To provide the best heating value, the technique comprises infusing prepared agricultural biomass blends and cow dung at particular ratios. The composite’s quality was enhanced by increasing GCV from 3066 Kcal/kg to 3600 Kcal/kg, increasing volatile matter content, i.e., from 60% to 68%, as well as lowering the ash content of the resultant pellet from 19% to 11%, on average.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Enhancing Fresh Water Production in Solar Parabolic Dish Desalination System
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Abdul Wahab, Waqas Javid, Hamza Ahmed, Abdullah Sheikh, Muhammad Shahbaz and Shahid Iqbal
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017022 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
This study presents a solar-powered parabolic dish desalination system with a solar tracking system and conical receiver. It efficiently transforms solar radiation into heat and evaporates saltwater, producing fresh water. The system is sustainable and affordable, making it a viable solution for water
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This study presents a solar-powered parabolic dish desalination system with a solar tracking system and conical receiver. It efficiently transforms solar radiation into heat and evaporates saltwater, producing fresh water. The system is sustainable and affordable, making it a viable solution for water desalination in areas with limited access to fresh water. It achieves a high conversion rate from saltwater to fresh water, while consuming minimal energy. The results indicate that the system effectively utilizes solar energy, exhibiting high efficiency levels ranging from 78.56% to 82.77%, with an average efficiency of 80.79%. This system offers an effective solution to meet the growing demand for fresh water in water-scarce regions.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Performance Analysis of Advanced Nuclear Power Plant with Variation of Sea Water Temperature
by
Muhammad Umair Tariq, Rashid Ali, Syed Muhammad Haris and Sajjad Ali
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017021 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Nuclear power plays a significant role in fulfilling the energy needs of Pakistan and its share in the total energy mix has increased from 4.7% to 8.8% in the past seven years. As per the Pakistan energy outlook report (2021–2030), this share is
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Nuclear power plays a significant role in fulfilling the energy needs of Pakistan and its share in the total energy mix has increased from 4.7% to 8.8% in the past seven years. As per the Pakistan energy outlook report (2021–2030), this share is hypothesized to increase to 10.82% by the year 2030, which will alleviate the energy shortage problem and, at same time, reduce carbon emissions. Like all thermal power plants, it is also necessary for nuclear plants to operate at optimum efficiency. This study is based on the thermodynamic analysis of the conventional side of an advanced HPR-1000 (PWR) nuclear power plant. In this paper, a comparison of indigenously developed model results is made, with vendor-provided sea water temperatures and power curves for year-long sea water temperature variation. Firstly, a computational model is developed using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software to evaluate the performance of the secondary side of the plant and is validated based on the designer-provided heat balance analysis for full power mode. Then, the condenser heat balance is performed for different cooling medium inlet temperatures and terminal temperature differences to study the relationship of condenser performance, thermal efficiency, and output power. Initial results reveal that sea water temperature varies at the condenser inlet from 5 to 35 °C, the power output of the unit decreases by 54 MW, and the thermodynamic efficiency drops by 1.79%. Thus, this paper highlights the impact of sea water temperature on plant performance and the need to devise more effective techniques to approach the plant’s optimum efficiency.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Nanofiltration (NF) and Reverse-Osmosis (RO) Membranes for Aqueous Ammonium Nitrate Salt Rejection: Experimental Studies
by
Zulfiqar Ali and Tahir Maqsood Qaisrani
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017020 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 2
Abstract
Herein, two commercially available spiral-wound nanofiltration (NF) and reverse-osmosis (RO) membrane elements were tested for aqueous ammonium nitrate salt separation. The effect of feed concentration and salt rejection as a function of transmembrane pressure were evaluated. NF and RO membranes exhibited 60% and
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Herein, two commercially available spiral-wound nanofiltration (NF) and reverse-osmosis (RO) membrane elements were tested for aqueous ammonium nitrate salt separation. The effect of feed concentration and salt rejection as a function of transmembrane pressure were evaluated. NF and RO membranes exhibited 60% and 92% ammonium nitrate salt rejection, respectively, upon the initial feed concentration of 0.1 wt% at a seven-bar operating pressure. High ammonium nitrate salt rejection by the RO membrane was owing to its relatively small pore size compared to the NF membrane. It was found experimentally that the commercially available RO and NF membrane elements can be used for ammonium nitrate salt rejections from industrial effluents at ambient conditions.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Effective Surface Washing of All Inorganic Perovskite Nanocrystals to Enhance Optoelectronic Properties
by
Saqib Ali, Maryam Basit, Muhammad Arman Liaquat, Muhammad Adnan, Aftab Akram and Sofia Javed
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017019 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
All inorganic perovskite colloidal nano crystals are an emerging class of optoelectronic materials. However, their colloidal and structural stability during isolation and washing are major hurdles for their commercial application. Their intrinsic chemical instability and optical stability are directly related to the bonding
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All inorganic perovskite colloidal nano crystals are an emerging class of optoelectronic materials. However, their colloidal and structural stability during isolation and washing are major hurdles for their commercial application. Their intrinsic chemical instability and optical stability are directly related to the bonding nature of the nanocrystals’ surface and organic capping agents that passivate the surface of nanocrystals. We studied the surface ligand properties of CsPbBr3 prepared by the conventional hot injection method and their washing with varying polarity antisolvent. We observed changes in electrical and optical properties through experimental studies. The study was mainly done by optical and electronic measurements. We determined a facile nanocrystal washing protocol and observed a considerable improvement in the optoelectronic properties of the all-inorganic perovskite colloidal nanocrystals.
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Preface of the 6th Conference on Emerging Materials Processes
by
Sofia Javed, Waheed Miran, Erum Pervaiz and Iftikhar Ahmad
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017001 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
The 6th Conference on Emerging Materials and Processes (CEMP 2023) was held on 22–23 November 2023, at the School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan “https://cemp [...]
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
A Novel Low-Cost Mechanism for Energy Generation through Footsteps
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Syed Azfar Imam Zaidi, Shahid Iqbal, Fahad Hussain, Muhammad Hammad Ikram, Waqas Javid and Muhammad Mateen
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017018 - 15 Apr 2024
Abstract
Energy is the primary concern of the modern era and the requirement of energy is being increased day by day; energy resources are not sufficiently available for sustainable development. It is crucial to generate affordable and pollution-free sources of energy to meet this
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Energy is the primary concern of the modern era and the requirement of energy is being increased day by day; energy resources are not sufficiently available for sustainable development. It is crucial to generate affordable and pollution-free sources of energy to meet this required demand. Walking is a common daily activity for humans; the kinetic energy from walking is converted into mechanical energy. Moreover, this energy is converted into electrical power using a rack-and-pinion mechanism which is simply a non-conventional method of producing electric current. In this research study, a simple and low-cost rack-and-pinion mechanism with a flywheel is introduced to enhance the performance and efficiency of energy conversion from kinetic energy to mechanical energy and subsequently into electrical energy. The results showed that the proposed footstep floor tile generated an average power of 3 watts for a 0.5 s duration with a peak load of 60 kg. The electrical energy produced per step was noted as 1.8 Joules. A percentage of 75% of the total potential energy theoretically accessible was transmitted by the energy-harvesting paver, and 50% of it was successfully converted into electricity. The generated energy is stored in a backup battery bank system and can be used to charge smart devices, providing a cost-effective and pollution-free solution.
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Open AccessProceeding Paper
Modeling Approach to Estimate Energy Consumption of Reverse Osmosis and forward Osmosis Membrane Separation Processes for Seawater Desalination
by
Yasir Hussain, Muhammad Irfan and Saeed Gul
Mater. Proc. 2024, 17(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2024017017 - 12 Apr 2024
Abstract
Due to growing industrialization and population increase, water scarcity is becoming a major global concern. Desalination is often regarded as a potential solution to the worldwide water crisis; however, due to rising prices and energy usage, desalination has remained a research focus. Traditionally,
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Due to growing industrialization and population increase, water scarcity is becoming a major global concern. Desalination is often regarded as a potential solution to the worldwide water crisis; however, due to rising prices and energy usage, desalination has remained a research focus. Traditionally, specific energy consumption (SEC) kWh/m3 for seawater desalination has been calculated using a hybrid approach that ignores membrane design attributes and operational parameters. The current study constructed a mathematical framework based on well-established theory to quantify and compare the energy consumption of pressure-driven and osmotic-driven membrane separation processes by incorporating the necessary membrane design and operational parameters into the model framework. The model results were compared to the literature data and found to be in good agreement. The findings of this study show a non-linear relationship between the membrane flowrate factor and the energy needs of reverse osmosis RO, with the effect being more obvious at low values of Kf < 50 L/h.bar, where Kf is equal to the product of membrane permeability and membrane area. The results also showed that the lowest SEC was obtained at 60–65% recovery, and, from model testing, the energy consumption was 3.65 kWh/m3 and 3.88 kWh/m3 for the RO and FO–RO processes, respectively. Additionally, the hybrid process demands more membrane area, which further raises the cost of desalination. The mathematical framework developed in this work will act as a prediction design tool for membrane plant designers to check and compare the feasibility of these processes before experimental work to save money and time.
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