Next Article in Journal
Factors Associated with Anxiety and Depression among Elite Collegiate Badminton Players in Japan: Exploratory Analysis
Previous Article in Journal
Systematic Review Protocol: Anhedonia in Youth and the Role of Internet-Related Behavior
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Psychiatry International
Volume 5
Issue 3
10.3390/psychiatryint5030032
psychiatryint-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Moderating Role of Psychological Needs on the Relationship between Eudaimonia and Mental Health

by
Ivana Marcinko
1,*,† and
Nina Brdar
2,†
1
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Humanistic Studies in Osijek, University of J. J. Strossmayer, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
2
Dr. Spiranovic Institution for Health Care for Occupational and Sports Medicine, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Psychiatry Int. 2024, 5(3), 458-469; https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint5030032
Submission received: 19 April 2024 / Revised: 25 July 2024 / Accepted: 6 August 2024 / Published: 12 August 2024
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Cultivating an eudaimonic lifestyle benefits mental health. However, it is not known under which circumstances the benefits of eudaimonia are the most pronounced. This cross-sectional study aimed to examine psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) as the moderators of the effects eudaimonia has on mental health (general mental health, positive and negative mental health). In total, 328 young adults took part in this study, of which 36.6% were males, whose ages ranged between 18 and 30, with a median of 19 years (SD = 1.32). Questionnaires were used to measure eudaimonia (The Eudaimonia Scale from The Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives for Activities), psychological needs (The Basic Psychological Needs Scale), and mental health (The Mental Health Inventory). To analyze the data, hierarchical regression analyses and analyses of variance have been performed. The results revealed that of all psychological needs, only the need for relatedness moderated the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health and eudaimonia and negative mental health. Individuals with high eudaimonia and a highly satisfied need for relatedness had good general mental health and fewer mental health disturbances. The findings suggest that if one practices meaningful behaviors, the positive change in the mental health domain is greatest when those actions benefit not only this individual but others as well.

1. Introduction

Eudaimonia is a Greek word that has its roots in Aristotelian philosophy [1]. Aristotle described eudaimonia as behavior that exercises excellence, virtue, and the best within us [2]. Eudaimonia in general and its components (courage, honesty, justice, and intellectual activity) have been promoted as a means of acquiring optimal functioning and health [3]. Until recently, it has been largely investigated in terms of physical health, while studies on its effects on mental health have been scarce. Only recent years have brought studies that reveal its role in mental health.
Generally, low levels of eudaimonia are associated with depression, while high levels are linked to positive affect [4]. Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that low levels of eudaimonia or its absence represent a risk factor for depression that would develop years later [5,6]. However, when psychologically distressed individuals were subjected to therapeutic or community programs that are enriched with eudaimonic elements, withdrawal of psychological disturbances was observed [7], and this newly acquired state of functioning would persist even 10 years later [8]. Antonovsky’s work on the sense of coherence also demonstrated the importance of eudaimonia through its component of meaningfulness, seen as the most important element for resilience trajectory [9]. A strong sense of coherence provides a person with strong coping mechanisms [10] against life stressors, helping them to develop strength, which contributes to the absence of psychological disturbances among healthy adults and a higher quality of life among patients with psychological symptoms [11]. The majority of research suggests that the benefits of eudaimonia could predominantly be attributed to its buffering properties in establishing mental health [12,13,14,15], which is evident through the lower incidence of depression among those exposed to emotional abuse in childhood if high on eudaimonia in adulthood [16].
By acknowledging the positive role of eudaimonia in mental health, a question arises about the circumstances under which its benefits are most pronounced. The self-determination theory [SDT [17]] posits the necessity of satisfying three psychological needs to acquire growth and optimal health. The inability to meet those needs provokes a variety of negative consequences. The three psychological needs are the need for autonomy, the need for competence, and the need for relatedness. The need for autonomy satisfaction refers to the propensity to act from within and in line with one’s deepest desires. Satisfaction with the need for competence entails the feeling of being successful at achieving desired outcomes in one’s environment. The need for relatedness satisfaction encompasses the feelings of belonging to a group where one feels connected to and cared for by others.
The relation of psychological needs to well-being, health, and ill-being has been extensively studied. Eckley et al. [18] reported that higher levels of needs frustration were linked to depression and anger while satisfaction led to low anxiety and depression. Pietrek et al. [19] demonstrated that depressive people generally had all three psychological needs thwarted, while the opposite was true for healthy controls. The difference was especially pronounced regarding the degree to which the needs for competence and relatedness were frustrated rather than satisfied. Ng et al. [20] investigated the effects of autonomy vs. controlling aspects of the health environment on mental health. The relationship between an autonomous health environment and mental health was shown to be positive, whereas with mental illness, the association was negative. On the other hand, Nasser and Overholser [21] demonstrated that social support predicts depression severity beyond initial levels of depression and that people who experience great levels of social support undergo a complete recovery. According to some, the satisfaction of the need for relatedness and competence explains even 44% of the variance in the apathy score and 28% of the variance in depressive symptoms [22]. Cross-cultural findings further support the notion of the importance of need satisfaction for positive outcomes. In 27 European countries, need satisfaction was related to meaning, happiness, life satisfaction, and low levels of depression [23].
Does this imply that a degree of need-satisfying experience defines conditions upon which the outcomes of the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health may depend? Some studies suggest that it may be so. Marcinko [24] found that high autonomy amplifies the positive effects of high well-being on physical health. Hui and Kogan [25] demonstrated that the level of autonomy satisfaction moderates the effects of prosociality on well-being. Some even suggest that the value that social context ties to a particular need raises different outcomes. For example, the satisfaction of relatedness needs is more important for the mental health of people in China than in Germany, where mental health is more dependent on the satisfaction of the need for autonomy [26].
Considering that the degree of satisfaction of psychological needs can have such a profound effect on well-being and mental health, this study aimed to examine if psychological needs moderate the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health. The findings would provide insight into the conditions under which the eudaimonic lifestyle has the most pronounced effect on mental health. As optimal mental health can be acquired through increasing positive mental health functioning as well as diminishing the presence of mental health difficulties, the study used the measurement of general mental health and its dimensions, positive mental health, and negative mental health to demonstrate the route through which eudaimonic contribution to mental health occurs.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ethics Statement

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Croatia (reference number: 2158-83-02-24-2, CLASS: 602-04/24-03/82). Before filling out the questionnaires, the participants gave their consent to participate in the study.

2.2. Participants

In total, 318 participants took part in the study, of whom 117 (36.8%) were male and 201 (63.2%) were female. The participant’s age range was 18 to 30 years, with a mean age of M = 19.80 (SD = 1.34). Considering socioeconomic status, 6.3% of participants reported below-average socioeconomic status, 74.8% believed to have average, and 18.9% of participants disclosed having above-average socioeconomic status.

2.3. Instruments

Several scales have been used in the study. Using this method of assessment allowed the gathering of data on a large number of participants. Also, by using subjective measures, the subjective perception of the presence of negative mental health symptoms and positive mental health, along with eudaimonic tendencies, and the degree of psychological need satisfaction were accurately assessed. The description of the scales used can be found in the section below.
The sociodemographic questionnaire was employed to gather information on gender, age, the year of study, and the type of university a participant is attending, as well as their socioeconomic status.
Eudaimonia was measured with a Eudaimonia Scale (four items) from The Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives for Activities [27]. The items that measure eudaimonia sound like: “I try to do my best”. Participants are asked to respond by indicating the degree to which they approach daily activities with the stated intentions. The answers are given on a seven-point scale (from 1-completely false to 7-completely true). The composite result is determined by summing all the answers, with a higher score indicating a greater degree of eudaimonia. The theoretical range of the results is 4–28. The scales were translated and validated in this study. The original factor analytic structure of The Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives for Activities has been confirmed. The reliability of the scales is similar to that reported by the authors. Internal-type reliability for the Eudaimonia Scale is α = 0.76.
Mental health was defined using The Mental Health Inventory [28], a questionnaire designed to assess general mental health and two-dimensional specifications of mental health, including positive (15 items) and negative (23 items) mental health. The Negative Mental Health Scale assesses symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loss of an individual’s behavioral/emotional control (e.g., “How often have you been crying for the last month?”), while items that measure positive mental health are focused on the evaluation of emotional relationships and the general positive affect of a person (e.g., “How long have you been feeling happy and carefree in the last month?”). All of the items, except two, are scored on a six-point scale (range 1–6), while the two remaining items are scored on a five-point scale (1–5). The results are determined by summing up the responses, whereas a higher score indicates a greater degree of general (positive or negative) mental health. The range of the results is 38–226. The questionnaire was translated and validated on the sample of the study, where the original factor analysis structure has been confirmed in the confirmatory factor analysis and the reliability coefficients are comparable to the ones reported by the authors. The Cronbach alpha for the negative mental health scale was 0.94 and 0.91 for the positive mental health scale, while the Cronbach alpha for the global mental health index measure was 0.96.
Autonomy, relatedness, and competence were assessed by The Basic Psychological Needs Scale [29], consisting of 21 items, seven of which measure the degree of satisfaction with the need for autonomy (e.g., “I live under pressure”), six examine the degree of satisfaction with the need for competency (e.g., “I often don’t feel too fit”), and eight are used to identify the extent to which the need for connectedness is satisfied (e.g., “People in my life care about me”). Answers are given on a seven-point scale (from 1-completely false to 7-completely true). The results for each scale are defined by summing the responses for each scale, whereas a greater result indicates a greater participant’s perceived satisfaction with that psychological need. The theoretical range of results for the autonomy scale was 15–49, for the relatedness scale, 8–56, while for the competence scale, the theoretical range of results was 16–42. The scale has been earlier validated in research with Croatian students, where the original scale structure has been confirmed while the reliability coefficients were satisfactory [30]. In this study, the determined Cronbach alpha for the autonomy subscale was 0.74, for the competence subscale it was 0.61, while for the relatedness subscale it was 0.76.

2.4. Design

The study was part of a larger project where the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health was initially investigated in Croatian young adults. For this purpose, a convenience sample of university students has been used. Three faculties of the J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek were randomly selected for this study. The departments of these faculties have been randomly selected, as have study groups within those departments, until the desired number of participants has been achieved. The participants were approached during compulsory lectures to ensure access to the entire study group that was chosen. The data collection was cross-sectional. At the beginning of the session, participants were given general instructions that entailed verbal and written information about the study before they were asked to give their consent to participate. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. As part of general instructions, participants were also advised to read the instructions on the instrument before answering the questions. The results of participants who did not complete the questionnaires were omitted from the sample.

2.5. Data Analyses

All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 20 computer software. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. A correlation was used to assess the extent to which research variables are interrelated. Hierarchical regression analysis was performed to assess the predictive value of eudaimonia on mental health as well as to test the moderation effects of psychological needs on this relationship. An analysis of variance was used to graphically illustrate statistically significant moderation effects.

3. Results

Descriptive statistics summarized the data for the research variables (Table 1).
The investigation of average values of research variables indicated that participants reported moderate levels of general mental health as well as positive mental health, while negative mental health was mildly present. Eudaimonia and satisfaction of psychological needs were also moderately present among our sample of participants.
To look into the interconnectedness between research variables, the correlation coefficients were calculated (Table 2).
Age, gender, and sociodemographic status were sociodemographic variables that correlated with eudaimonia and different aspects of mental health. Older participants had higher levels of eudaimonia, general mental health, and fewer mental health issues. Females have a greater tendency to experience mental health problems. High socioeconomic status was associated with greater general mental health and higher positive mental health, along with fewer negative mental health symptoms.
Eudaimonia is weakly but statistically significantly related to general mental health and its components, positive and negative mental health. The greatest correlation was found between eudaimonia and positive mental health. The higher the eudaimonia, the greater the general mental health and positive mental health. On the other hand, higher eudaimonia was associated with fewer mental health issues.
All three psychological needs are moderately correlated with all mental health domains. The greater the need-satisfying experience, the better general mental health and positive mental health. On the contrary, low satisfaction with all three psychological needs was linked to more pronounced negative mental health. Further, the satisfaction of the need for autonomy and competence was associated with higher eudaimonia levels.
Hierarchical regression analyses were also performed to examine whether psychological needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) moderate the association between eudaimonia and different mental health domains. Considering that the interaction effects were being tested, predictor and moderator variables were centered prior to analyses to avoid multicollinearity [31]. Eudaimonia and three psychological needs were predictors, while general mental health and positive and negative mental health were criterion variables. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 3.
The results indicate that relatedness not only moderates the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health (R2 = 0.47, p < 0.05), but it also affects the relationship between eudaimonia and negative mental health (R2 = 0.40, p < 0.05).
To analyze the significant interactions further, 2 × 2 analyses of variance were performed. Before the analyses, independent variables (eudaimonia and relatedness) were divided into categories of high and low scores by extracting 20% of the highest and 20% of the lowest values from the distribution of the results. The moderation role of relatedness in the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health can be seen in Figure 1.
As can be seen, the greatest general mental health was found among participants with high eudaimonia and high relatedness. More interestingly, if the need for relatedness was poorly satisfied, not much difference in general mental health was found between participants with high eudaimonia in comparison to those with low eudaimonia.
An illustration of the moderation effect of relatedness on the relationship between eudaimonia and negative mental health can be found in Figure 2.
Fewer mental health disturbances were reported by those with high eudaimonia and a highly satisfied need for relatedness. The most pronounced negative mental health was observed among those with high eudaimonia and low satisfaction with the need for relatedness.

4. Discussion

The study was conducted to examine if psychological needs affect the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health. Findings underscore the relevance of basic psychological need fulfillment for understanding the conditions under which purposeful behavior will and can affect mental health. Of all psychological needs, only the need for relatedness moderates the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health. It was found that the need for relatedness moderates the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health and eudaimonia and mental health problems. Individuals with high eudaimonia and a highly satisfied need for relatedness had good general mental health and fewer mental health disturbances.
Thus, the positive effects of eudaimonia on general mental health as well as negative mental health can only be observed if the need for relatedness is highly satisfied. When eudaimonia was high but relatedness satisfying experience was low, deteriorated general mental health and more profound mental distress were present. Also, no difference in mental health was observed between people high on eudaimonia as opposed to those low on eudaimonia when the need for relatedness was poorly satisfied. The findings indicate that human beings want to feel that their actions matter to others in order to feel good. That is, the eudaimonic lifestyle, on its own, will not contribute to optimal mental health unless the goals and behaviors one pursues are not valued by others. It seems that striving towards goals that are important for greater social structure creates meaning in life, which translates to one’s life purpose being bigger than oneself. That creates a healthy attitude towards life and daily hassles that decrease mental problems and establish mental health. This argument is consistent with the concept of holism. In holistic systems, each part has a specific role to play for the system to function optimally. When an organism fulfills its predisposed role, it becomes more than the sum of its parts [32], but if parts are taken to pieces, the organism is impaired [33]. Therefore, a sense of belonging and contributing to a larger whole is essential for an organism to be complete. This reasoning is also in line with more recent studies indicating that greater satisfaction with the need for relatedness initiates greater meaning in life cross-sectionally and longitudinally [23] and generates greater life satisfaction [34].
The importance of social connectedness for meaningful behavior and mental health has already been recognized by Adler [35], who integrated social interest into his theory of understanding human behavior. He recognized that humans have an innate need and capability to live in harmony with society. This need has to be consciously developed throughout life, and to decide to be useful beyond themselves and to the prosperity of others is the main criterion for mental health. He argued, „If an individual, in the meaning he gives to life, wishes to contribute, and if his emotions are all directed to this goal, he will naturally be bound to bring himself into the best shape” (p. 113). However, when goals in life are self-centered, striving for self-improvement and personal growth without thinking of others becomes egocentric, alienated, and prone to psychological disturbances [36]. An overlapping concept that highlights the mental state acquired from aspirations that benefit not only that one individual but also others is transcendence, as proposed by Maslow [37]. He argued that transcendence represents the highest form of human consciousness, which is initiated by the unselfish Self and includes identification with human beings. Thus, all point to the conclusion that gravitating toward goals that have collective value initiates an intrinsically present and compassionate state of consciousness that is identified as psychological health. Bass’s [38] findings further support this notion, showing that social interest is linked to various positive outcomes such as self-esteem, altruism, coping resources, and happiness, while its low levels correlate with hopelessness, depression, anxiety, hostility, and substance abuse.
The interesting revelation of the study was that relatedness moderates the association between eudaimonia and negative mental health. The relationship between eudaimonia and negative mental health is acknowledged by previous research. It is argued that a lack of eudaimonic principles causes symptoms of deteriorating mental health. Depression or anxiety results from a lack of purpose, a lack of values and value-focused behavior, diminished personal growth, and gratitude [39,40,41,42], while according to Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, the presence of pathology arises from a lack of focus on the present moment and disconnection from emotions [43]. The confirmation that low levels of eudaimonia are associated with psychopathology is evident not only in cross-sectional [4] but prospective studies [5,6] too. Furthermore, the finding that relatedness moderates this relationship is important because it gives an understanding that general mental health status can be improved if one chooses to pursue goals that go above and beyond oneself. The results suggest that having such an orientation elevates mental health issues. This is significant for clinical practice because it provides insight into how to create a plan of action and therapeutic interventions for the best possible outcomes. So far, the majority of intervening techniques are oriented toward improving the well-being and satisfaction of a single individual, but our results suggest that implementing a strategy where a person plays an important role for a greater number of people will yield greater success.
It is believed that culture played a role in explaining why the relatedness of all psychological needs, moderated the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health. Cultural syndromes of individualism and collectivism define which behaviors and goals are valued by the members of the group [44]. People in collectivistic cultures give preference to attending to others and the interests of the group, while in individualistic societies, priority is given to being independent and goals that are of value just for that one person. Considering the sample of this study consists of people from Croatia, a country that is considered collectivistic [45] and where the cultural identity is wrapped around an other-oriented perspective, it was not unusual that relatedness, among all the psychological needs, has had a significant effect on the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health. The fact that the greatest mental health was reported by those whose relatedness needs were highly satisfied confirms previous findings that individuals with a strong cultural identity are the ones who are most likely to experience mental health [46]. Cultural disparities in the importance of the specific psychological need for mental health outcomes have been evident by Balkir et al. [26], who demonstrated that relatedness need satisfaction was a better predictor of mental health for Turkish women while autonomy satisfaction has the greatest contribution to mental health for Germans. The same authors also reported that higher levels of interdependence were linked to lower mental distress among Turkish patients, while for German patients, the same interdependence level caused greater mental suffering.
Another way collectivistic culture could affect the results of this study is through participants’ preference for low-arousal emotions, which is common in cultural practices. According to different research, low-arousal positive emotions include pleased, relaxed, serene [47], calm, and peaceful [48] emotions, which not only arise from practicing eudaimonia but also define states that are commonly found in the domain of mental health. In individualistic countries, high-aroused positive states, such as happiness, are expected to have an effect on mental health due to the greater preference for such emotional states [48]. Furthermore, as self-transcendence (e.g., seeking the ultimate ideals of goodness, curiosity, and seeking one’s calling) is more commonly practiced by individuals in collectivistic cultures [49], it is not unusual that greater eudaimonia was associated with the state of mental health in this study. After all, the more endorsed cultural values are by the person, the greater is the presence of high self-esteem [50].
The study’s limitations refer to subjects who were healthy, young people, which makes inferences about the generalizability of the findings limited. The generalizability of the results is also compromised due to the relatively small sample size. Although the moderation effects of relatedness on the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health measures are significant (explaining in total 1% of the variance in general mental health and 2% of the variance in negative mental health), the size of the effects is small, questioning the true validity of the findings. For these purposes, a much larger and more diverse sample is recommended in future attempts to be able to conclude findings with greater certainty. Collecting data through self-reports also carries limitations. Using self-reports for measurement of eudaimonia and mental health aspects may have contributed to subjects responding in a favorable way, portraying themselves as being high in eudaimonia and positive mental health while lacking negative mental health symptoms. It is expected that the relationships between eudaimonia and mental health facets could be weaker or non-existent if objective measures of variables were used. The use of self-reports could also contribute to participants responding in a biased way regarding need satisfaction. The participants are in a developmental stage where the need for intimacy and sex is emphasized [51], so it is not unexpected that satisfaction of the need for relatedness was extracted as the moderator of the relationships. The conclusion that relatedness, of all psychological needs, moderates tested relationships should be taken with caution as research in a different culture may give rise to different results. The cross-sectional nature of this study could have been another limitation. The employment of a longitudinal study design could potentiate that other psychological needs moderate the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health, as the cumulative effect of satisfying one psychological need increases the satisfaction of the other need over time [52]. Also, there is a reciprocal relationship between eudaimonia and psychological needs [53] that develops over time, which could strengthen the association between eudaimonia and a particular psychological need, which could affect the results. The effects of neuroticism, which is known to influence subjective health measures [54], as well as being suggested to be a common factor for both eudaimonia and mental health [55], have not been controlled, so we do not know to what degree neuroticism influenced the results.

5. Conclusions

Despite the shortcomings of the study, the results demonstrated that, of all psychological needs, the need for relatedness moderates the relationship between eudaimonia and mental health. The need for relatedness moderates the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health in such a way that the most prominent positive effects of eudaimonia on general mental health are found among individuals whose need for relatedness is highly satisfied. Similarly, the need for relatedness moderates the association between eudaimonia and negative mental health. The fewest mental health issues are found among young adults who have high eudaimonia and a highly satisfied need for relatedness. This shows that pursuing purposeful goals that benefit not only a single person but significant others or a community has far-reaching positive consequences for decreasing mental health disturbances and improving the general mental health status of that individual. These findings have implications for clinical practice by creating protocols that would teach a person to strive towards something greater than themselves. For example, counseling centers could offer short-term prevention programs and student assistance programs where healthy young people, along with those who are already experiencing psychological difficulties, would be taught how to develop values and a life orientation that would benefit them as well as others. They could be encouraged to take part in charity work with disadvantaged youth, shelter animals, or assist freshman students with adaptation to the student lifestyle.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and literature search, I.M. and N.B.; methodology, I.M. and N.B.; data analyses, I.M. and N.B.; writing, I.M. and N.B.; writing—review and editing, I.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Croatia on 27 March 2024, and approval code is 2158-83-02-24-2.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are openly available in Figshare under reference number 10.6084/m9.figshare.24548845.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Irwin, T.H. Conceptions of happiness in the Nicomachean Ethics. In The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle; Shields, C., Ed.; Oxford University Press: London, UK, 2012; pp. 495–528. [Google Scholar]
  2. Huta, V.; Waterman, A.S. Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. J. Happiness Stud. 2014, 15, 1425–1456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ryff, C. Contributions of eudaimonic well-being to mental health practice. Ment. Health Soc. Incl. 2023, 27, 276–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Tang, D.; Kelley, N.J.; Hicks, J.A.; Harmon-Jones, E. Emotions and meaning in life: A motivational perspective. In The Experience of Meaning in Life: Classical Perspectives, Emerging Themes, and Controversies; Hicks, J.A., Routledge, C., Eds.; Springer Science + Business Media: Berlin, Germany, 2013; pp. 117–128. [Google Scholar]
  5. Ruini, C.; Cesetti, G. Spotlight on eudaimonia and depression. A systematic review of the literature over the past 5 years. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2019, 12, 767–792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Wood, A.M.; Joseph, S. The absence of positive psychological (eudemonic) well-being as a risk factor for depression: A ten year cohort study. J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 122, 213–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Zang, D.; Lee, E.K.P.; Mak, E.C.W.; Wong, S.Y.S. Mindfulness-based interventions: An overall review. Br. Med. Bull. 2021, 138, ldab005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Rottenberg, J.; Devendorf, A.R.; Panaite, V.; Disabato, D.J.; Kashdan, T.B. Optimal wellbeing after major depression. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 2019, 7, 621–627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Mc Gee, S.L.; Holtge, J.; Maercker, A.; Thoma, M.M. Sense of coherence and stress-related resilience: Investigating the mediating and moderating mechanism in the development of resilience following stress or adversity. Front. Psychiatry 2018, 9, 378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Eriksson, M. (Ed.) The sense of coherence in the salutogenic model of health. In The Handbook of Salutogenesis; Springe: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 91–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Eriksson, M. (Ed.) The sense of coherence: The concepts and its relationship to health. In The Handbook of Salutogenesis; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 61–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Heller, A.S.; van Reekum, C.M.; Schaefer, S.M.; Lapate, R.C.; Radler, B.T.; Ryff, C.D.; Davidson, R.J. Sustained striatal activity predicts eudaimonic well-being and cortisol output. Psychol. Sci. 2013, 24, 2191–2200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Schaefer, S.M.; Morozink Boylan, J.; van Reekum, C.M.; Lapate, R.C.; Norris, C.J.; Ryff, C.D.; Davidson, R.J. Purpose in life predicts better emotional recovery from negative stimuli. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e80329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ishida, R.; Okada, M. Effects of a firm purpose in life on anxiety and sympathetic nervous activity caused by emotional stress: Assessment by psycho-physiological method. Stress Health 2006, 22, 275–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Harmat, L.; de Manzano, R.; Theorell, T.; Högman, L.; Fischer, H.; Ullén, F. Physiological correlates of the flow experience during computer game playing. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 2015, 97, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Hartanto, A.; Yong, J.C.; Lee, S.T.H.; Ng, W.Q.; Tong, E.M.W. Putting adversity in perspective: Purpose in life moderates the link between childhood emotional abuse and neglect and adulthood depressive symptoms. J. Ment. Health 2020, 29, 473–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Deci, E.L.; Ryan, R.M. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior; Plenum: New York, NY, USA, 1985; p. 372. [Google Scholar]
  18. Eckley, L.; Allen, A.; Millear, P.; Rune, K.; Mason, J. Psychological needs and psychopathology in adults following a significant life event: A self-determination theory perspective. Cogn. Ther. Res. 2023, 47, 919–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Pietrek, A.; Kangas, M.; Kliekl, R.; Rapp, M.A.; Heinzel, S.; van der Kaap-Deer, J.; Heissel, A. Basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration in major depressive disorder. Front. Psychiatry 2022, 13, 962501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Ng, J.Y.Y.; Ntoumanis, N.; Ntoumani-Thogersen, C.; Deci, E.L.; Ryan, R.M.; Duda, J.L.; Williams, G.C. Self-determination theory applied to health contexts: A meta-anlysis. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2012, 7, 325–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Nasser, E.H.; Overholser, J.C. Recovery from major depression: The role of support from family, friends, and spiritual beliefs. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2005, 111, 125–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Souesme, G.; Martinent, G.; Ferrand, C. Perceived autonomy support, psychological needs satisfaction, depressive symptoms and apathy in French hospitalized older patients. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2016, 65, 70–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Martela, F.; Ryan, R.M.; Steger, M.F. Meaningfulness as satisfaction of autonomy, competence, relatedness, and beneficence: Comparing the four satisfactions and positive affect as predictors of meaning in life. J. Happiness Stud. 2017, 19, 1261–1282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Marcinko, I. The moderating role of autonomous motivation on the relationship between subjective well-being and physical health. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0126399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Hui, B.P.H.; Kogan, A. Who helping helps: An event-sampling study of how basic psychological needs moderate the impact of acting prosocially. J. Posit. Psychol. 2018, 13, 563–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Balkir, N.; Arens, E.A.; Wolff, C.; Barnow, S. The link between self-construal and mental distress in Turkish migrants and German women with depression. Psychiatr. Praxi 2013, 40, 135–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Huta, V.; Ryan, R.M. Pursuing Pleasure or Virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic motives. J. Happiness Stud. 2010, 11, 735–762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Veit, C.T.; Ware, J.E. The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1983, 51, 730–742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Deci, E.L.; Ryan, R.M. The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 2000, 11, 227–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Sabol, J. Osobine Linosti i Osnovne Psihološke Potrebe kao Prediktori Zadovoljstva Životom. Bachelor’s Thesis, Odsjek za Psihologiju Filozofskog Fakulteta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, Croatia, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  31. Aiken, L.S.; West, S.G. Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions; SAGE Publications, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1991; p. 212. [Google Scholar]
  32. Dodds, E.R. Proclus: The Elements of Theology: A Revised Text with Translation, Introduction, and Commentary, 2nd ed.; Oxford University Press: London, UK, 1963; p. 398. [Google Scholar]
  33. Smuts, J.C. Holism and Evolution; Macmillian Company: New York, NY, USA, 1926; p. 354. [Google Scholar]
  34. Sakan, D.; Zuljevic, D.; Rokvic, N. The role of basic psychological needs well-being during the COVID-19 outbreak: A Self-Determination theory perspective. Front. Public Health 2020, 12, 583181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Ansbachter, H.L.; Ansbachter, R.R. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler; Harper Torchbooks: New York, NY, USA, 1956; p. 528. [Google Scholar]
  36. Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind; Faber and Faber, Ltd.: London, UK, 1938; p. 178. [Google Scholar]
  37. Maslow, A.H. Toward a humanistic biology. Am. Psychol. 1969, 24, 724–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Bass, M.L. Social Interest: A Theoretical and Empirical Explication. Ph.D. Dissertation, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  39. Goodman, F.R.; Doorley, J.D.; Kashdan, T.B. Well-being and psychopathology: A deep exploration into positive emotions, meaning and purpose in life, and social relationships. In Handbook of Well-Being; Diener, E., Oishi, S., Tay, L., Eds.; DEF Publishers: Salt Lake City, UT, USA, 2018; pp. 1–12. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332550696_Well-being_and_Psychopathology_A_Deep_Exploration_into_Positive_Emotions_Meaning_and_Purpose_in_Life_and_Social_Relationships (accessed on 1 April 2024).
  40. Popov, S. When is unconditional self-acceptance a better predictor of mental health than self-esteem? J. Rat. Emot. Cogn-Behav. Ther. 2019, 37, 251–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Watkins, P.C.; Grimm, D.L.; Kolts, R. Counting your blessings: Positive memories among grateful persons. Curr. Psychol. 2004, 23, 52–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Zaman, S.; Naqvi, I. Role of personal growth initiative as a moderator between stress and mental health among adolescents. Pak. J. Psychol. Res. 2018, 33, 123–147. [Google Scholar]
  43. Harris, R. ACT Made Simple: An Easy-to-Read Primer on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy; New Harbinger Publications: Oakland, CA, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  44. Markus, H.R.; Kitayama, S. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychol. Rev. 1991, 98, 224–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Hofstede, G.; Garibaldi De Hilal, A.V.; Malvezzi, S.; Tanure, B.; Vinken, H. Comparing regional cultures within a country: Lessons from Brazil. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 2010, 41, 336–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Williams, A.D.; Clark, T.C.; Lewycka, S. The associations between cultural identity and mental health outcomes for indigenous Māori youth in New Zeland. Front. Public Health 2018, 6, 319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Russell, J.A. A circumplex model of affect. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1980, 39, 1161–1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Tsai, J.L.; Miao, F.F.; Seppala, E.; Fung, H.H.; Yeung, D.Y. Influence and adjustment goals: Sources of cultural differences ideal affect. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2007, 92, 1102–1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Oishi, S.; Schimmack, U.; Diener, E.; Suh, E.M. The measurement of values and individualism-collectivism. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 1998, 24, 1177–1189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Du, H.; Gotz, F.M.; Chen, A.; Rentfrow, P.J. Revisiting values and self-esteem: A large-scale study in the United States. Eur. J. Pers. 2021, 37, 3–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Bishop, C.; Keth, K.D. Psychosocial stages of development. In The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology; Keith, K.D., Ed.; Wiley-Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA; New York, NY, USA, 2013; p. 1528. [Google Scholar]
  52. Maunz, L.A.; Glaser, J. Longitudinal dynamics of psychological need satisfaction, meaning in work and burnout. J. Vocat. Behav. 2024, 150, 103971. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Martel, F.; Unanue, J.; Gomez, M.; Unanue, W. Reciprocal relations between meaning in life, beneficence, and psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness: Evidence from a three-wave longitudinal study. J. Happiness Stud. 2024, 25, 25–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Watson, D.; Pennebaker, J.W. Health complaints, stress, and distress: Exploring the central role of negative affectivity. Psychol. Rev. 1989, 96, 234–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Anglim, J.; Horwood, S.; Smillie, L.D.; Marrero, R.J.; Wood, J.K. Predicting psychological and subjective well-being from personality: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 2020, 146, 279–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Psychiatryint 05 00032 g001
Figure 1. The moderation effect of relatedness on the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health.
Figure 1. The moderation effect of relatedness on the relationship between eudaimonia and general mental health.
Psychiatryint 05 00032 g001
Psychiatryint 05 00032 g002
Figure 2. The moderation effect of relatedness on the relationship between eudaimonia and negative mental health.
Figure 2. The moderation effect of relatedness on the relationship between eudaimonia and negative mental health.
Psychiatryint 05 00032 g002
Table 1. Descriptive data of the examined variables (N = 318).
Table 1. Descriptive data of the examined variables (N = 318).
MSD
General mental health157.1127.33
Negative mental health61.9917.38
Positive mental health53.1011.62
Eudaimonia23.243.16
Autonomy36.506.72
Relatedness46.296.95
Competence29.315.43
Note. M mean, SD standard deviation.
Table 2. Correlation coefficients of the examined variables.
Table 2. Correlation coefficients of the examined variables.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.
1. Sex/−0.030.23 **−0.080.080.05−0.080.000.13 *−0.07−0.11
2. Age /0.38 **−0.010.02−0.050.11 *0.11 *−0.11 *0.090.11 *
3. Year of study /0.13 *0.100.060.100.05−0.020.020.02
4. SES /0.12 *0.080.21 **−0.02−0.20 **0.16 **0.19 **
5. Autonomy /0.58 **0.54 **0.22 **−0.57 **0.62 **0.63 **
6. Relatedness /0.45 **0.09−0.45 **0.46 **0.48 **
7. Competence /0.35 **−0.49 **0.53 **0.54 **
8. Eudaimonia /−0.13 *0.23 **0.18 **
9. Negative mental health /−0.77 **−0.96 **
10. Positive mental health /0.91 **
11. General mental health /
Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Table 3. Results of hierarchical regression analyses examining the contribution of eudaimonia and psychological needs to general mental health and negative and positive mental health.
Table 3. Results of hierarchical regression analyses examining the contribution of eudaimonia and psychological needs to general mental health and negative and positive mental health.
CriterionModelPredictorR2∆R2Fβ
General mental healthStep 1 0.03 **/10.56 **
Eudaimonia 0.18 **
Step 2Eudaimonia0.46 ***0.43 ***66.05 ***−0.01
Autonomy 0.42 ***
Relatedness
Competence		 0.13 *
0.25 ***
Step 3 0.47 *0.01 *39.71 ***
Eudaimonia 0.10
Autonomy
Relatedness
Competence
AutonomyXeudaimonia
RelatednessXeudaimonia
CompetenceXeudaimonia		 0.41 **
0.19 *
0.26 ***
0.03
0.12 *
−0.06
Negative mental healthStep 1 0.02 */5.16 *
Eudaimonia −0.13 *
Step 2Eudaimonia0.38 ***0.37 **48.89 ***0.05
Autonomy −0.38 ***
Relatedness
Competence		 −0.12 *
−0.25 ***
Step 3 0.40 *0.02 *29.96 ***
Eudaimonia 0.03
Autonomy
Relatedness
Competence
AutonomyXeudaimonia
RelatednessXeudaimonia
CompetenceXeudaimonia		 −0.36 ***
−0.19 *
−0.25 ***
−0.00
−0.15 *
0.05
Positive mental healthStep 1 0.05 ***/18.18 ***
Eudaimonia 0.23 ***
Step 2Eudaimonia0.45 ***0.40 ***63.19 ***0.05
Autonomy 0.42 ***
Relatedness
Competence		 0.11 *
0.23 ***
Step 3 0.460.0137.07 ***
Eudaimonia 0.06
Autonomy
Relatedness
Competence
AutonomyXeudaimonia
RelatednessXeudaimonia
CompetenceXeudaimonia		 0.42 ***
0.10
0.24 ***
0.07
0.06
−0.08
Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.001, *** p< 0.0001, R2 proportion of variance in the criterion variable explained by the predictor variable, ∆R2 difference in R2 between previous and current steps, F F-ratio, β degree of change in the outcome variable for every 1-unit of change in the predictor variable.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Marcinko, I.; Brdar, N. The Moderating Role of Psychological Needs on the Relationship between Eudaimonia and Mental Health. Psychiatry Int. 2024, 5, 458-469. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint5030032

AMA Style

Marcinko I, Brdar N. The Moderating Role of Psychological Needs on the Relationship between Eudaimonia and Mental Health. Psychiatry International. 2024; 5(3):458-469. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint5030032

Chicago/Turabian Style

Marcinko, Ivana, and Nina Brdar. 2024. "The Moderating Role of Psychological Needs on the Relationship between Eudaimonia and Mental Health" Psychiatry International 5, no. 3: 458-469. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint5030032

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop