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Article

The Role of Boredom in the Development of Risky Behaviours Among Adolescents

by
Bruno Matijašević
1,*,
Snježana Mališa
2 and
Antonija Vukašinović
3
1
Croatian Catholic University, Ilica 242, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
2
Department of Communicology, Croatian Catholic University, Ilica 242, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
3
University of Slavonski Brod, Trg Ivane Brlić Mažuranić 2, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Adolescents 2025, 5(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5030036
Submission received: 29 March 2025 / Revised: 27 June 2025 / Accepted: 2 July 2025 / Published: 11 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Implicit Measures of Risky Behaviors in Adolescence)
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Abstract

Background: Boredom is a common but insufficiently explored experience in adolescence, which has been increasingly linked to the development of risky behaviours. This study explores the extent to which boredom predicts engagement in various risky behaviours among adolescents aged 15 to 17. Methods: A cross-sectional study on a sample of 281 high-school students in Croatia was performed in 2024. The participants completed a structured online questionnaire, including validated scales measuring their proneness to boredom, substance use, disordered eating, theft, and cyberbullying. Data were analysed using non-parametric tests, correlation coefficients, and linear regression. Results: Boredom showed a significant association with all forms of risky behaviour, with the strongest association found for disordered eating. Moderate predictive ability was observed for alcohol, marijuana, and drug use, while weaker but significant associations with cyberbullying and theft were also found. Male adolescents reported higher involvement in certain risky behaviours, although no significant gender differences were observed in boredom levels. Conclusions: Boredom is a developmental risk factor, notably when leisure time lacks structure and meaning. While the cross-sectional design of this study limits causal conclusions, the findings highlight the importance of taking boredom into consideration regarding pedagogical prevention efforts. Pedagogical activities targeting quality leisure time, especially within schools and families, may reduce adolescents’ susceptibility to harmful behaviours.

1. Introduction

Boredom is an interdisciplinary concept that has been acknowledged in theoretical discussions since early historical records. The understanding of and attitudes toward boredom have evolved significantly, ranging from exclusively negative perceptions to recognising boredom as a potential source of creativity that is essential for human development. In modern society, despite its interdisciplinary character, boredom is an important pedagogical correlate due to its impacts on family, peer, and school relationships. Despite its pervasive presence in society, given the diversity of theoretical perspectives and attitudes, boredom remains challenging to define precisely. Nonetheless, a widely accepted definition (applicable also to this research) describes boredom as “the aversive state of wanting, but being unable, to engage in satisfying activity” [1] (p. 482).
The effect of boredom on individuals varies depending on its type—specifically, whether it serves an adaptive (functional) or maladaptive (dysfunctional) role. Functional boredom can be perceived positively, as a signal prompting an individual to initiate activities to change their current unsatisfactory state [2]. In this context, boredom can motivate the development of creativity and lead to the generation of ideas that satisfy an individual’s desire to engage in activities [3]. This type of boredom can be positively utilised for fostering creativity within school assignments or as a beneficial aspect of pedagogical work, both in the school and family contexts.
Conversely, dysfunctional boredom has adverse effects, potentially causing significant harm to the individual. In this sense, boredom is an unpleasant experience associated with feelings of meaninglessness [4] and engagement in under-challenging activities [5]. Moreover, boredom is often perceived as an unpleasant feeling resulting from insufficient environmental stimulation [6]. Although boredom occurs daily across most populations, it is particularly hazardous for children and adolescents, who might respond by engaging in stimulating yet potentially harmful activities. In contrast to functional boredom, this type of boredom may motivate the development of pedagogical activities aimed at preventing the potential negative effects that may arise from it. The importance of researching boredom within pedagogical, educational, preventive, and intervention contexts for adolescents is underscored by evidence indicating that between 91% and 98% of adolescents experience boredom at some point [7,8]. In search of additional environmental stimulation, adolescents who frequently report feelings of boredom are two to three times more likely to engage in binge drinking, substance use, and drug experimentation compared to their peers who experience boredom less often [6]. A persistent sense of boredom is also associated with diminished self-control, which may increase the likelihood of risky decisions, particularly those involving engaging in dangerous or long-term harmful behaviours that provide short-term gratification [9]. Considering all of the above information, boredom can be placed as a very important pedagogical topic due to its impacts on family and school environments.
During states of boredom, adolescents may attempt to develop personal coping strategies. However, due to their immature coping skills and underdeveloped emotional regulation mechanisms, these responses often manifest as behavioural deviance. When reinforced by peer groups who experience similar emotional states, this can lead to various forms of dependency, such as excessive internet use or involvement in delinquent behaviours [6]. It can be concluded that coping strategies that are reinforced by one’s peers can become socially and culturally normed.
The experience of boredom may be contextually induced, either due to a lack of meaningful leisure-time activities or insufficient stimulation within the school setting. A lack of structured activities that fulfil adolescents’ needs for engagement and satisfaction may result in unstructured free time, which has been identified as a developmental risk factor for youth [10,11]. Moreover, school environments that fail to provide adequately stimulating or challenging educational content can become a source of boredom, especially for students who excel academically or show strong interest in particular subjects [12]. This once again clearly demonstrates that, despite its interdisciplinary nature, boredom as a phenomenon has a strong connection to pedagogical activity in society, specifically in relation to school and family contexts. This aligns with Self-Determination Theory, which posits that environments lacking in support for autonomy, competence, and relatedness contribute to amotivation and disengagement—factors that are also central to the experience of boredom. When these needs are unmet, adolescents may seek stimulation through risky behaviours as a compensatory mechanism [13].
While boredom is widespread among adolescents, sociodemographic variations have been reported. These differences are inconsistent across studies, and further analysis is needed to determine whether specific sociodemographic characteristics are decisive in the prevalence of boredom or if additional correlates influence them. For instance, several studies on American adolescent populations have shown that girls tend to report higher levels of boredom [14]; however, this finding is not universally supported, as other research has suggested that boys are more prone to experiencing boredom [15]. Despite these discrepancies, a clear trend observed over the past decade is that self-reported boredom has increased among both genders [8].
What is particularly significant about boredom is that, for various reasons, it produces multiple harmful behaviours. Individuals experiencing boredom tend to have an increased need to consume so-called “exciting” foods (e.g., sweets) and generally ingest more calories, which may potentially lead to the development of eating disorders [16,17]. In addition to its potential role in the onset of disordered eating, adolescents who report feelings of boredom also exhibit higher levels of binge drinking. Notably, 27% of Italian adolescents have cited boredom as their primary motivator for alcohol consumption [18]. The adverse effects of boredom extend further, as evidenced by increased marijuana use among adolescents who report experiencing boredom [18]. Beyond substance use, adolescents who experience high levels of boredom are 2.3 times more likely to engage in activities of a delinquent nature [19].
These findings underscore that boredom represents a significant pedagogical challenge, necessitating a community-wide approach for the identification of solutions. Such an approach should encompass familial, educational, peer-related, and leisure-time contexts. The initial step involves assessing the need for prevention and intervention strategies targeting boredom, along with identifying the current state of the issue. Within this framework, the present study aims to identify behavioural and pedagogical disorders associated with adolescent boredom and determine the extent of this association. Boredom is examined as a predictive condition for developing certain behavioural issues, taking adolescents’ sociodemographic characteristics into consideration. This study focuses on a population of Croatian adolescents, as boredom has been under-represented in the Croatian scientific literature relative to other risky behaviours to date. Furthermore, this study explores broader correlations between boredom and risky behaviours, thereby providing deeper insight into the potential dangers of adolescent boredom that can potentially be connected with pedagogical issues.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The study involved 281 high-school students from diverse backgrounds, including both genders—207 females (73.6%) and 74 males (26.3%). The age range of the participants was 15 to 17 years, as this period is considered the peak of boredom experiences during early and middle adolescence [20]. A total of 157 participants (55.9%) were from urban city centres, while 124 participants (44.1%) resided in rural areas of the Republic of Croatia.
Purposive sampling was employed in this study. Participants were selected based on criteria aligned with the research objectives. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (i) students who had received parental consent and voluntarily agreed to participate in the study; (ii) individuals aged between 15 and 17 years; and (iii) students who reported experiencing boredom occasionally or frequently in their everyday lives.

2.2. Research Protocol

This study used a quantitative, cross-sectional design aligned with the research objectives. The primary aim of this protocol was to gain insight into the prevalence of boredom among adolescents and their potential engagement in risky behaviour patterns at a specific point in time, without the intention of tracking changes over time. Accordingly, a structured questionnaire was used as the primary data collection instrument. The questionnaire was created online via Google Forms to facilitate its convenient distribution.
The research protocol consisted of several steps, beginning with the acquisition of a positive opinion from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty regarding the research instrument. The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Ethics Committee in Osijek approved the research instrument and the data collection procedure. Following this, school principals were contacted to obtain permission to contact parents and request their consent for their children’s participation in the study. A total of 27 high schools were contacted, of which 21 granted permission to contact parents.
Through classroom teachers, an invitation to participate in the study was sent to parents. In total, 758 consent requests were distributed, 302 parents agreed to participate, and 281 students completed the questionnaire. After receiving written parental consent, students completed the questionnaire during school hours by scanning a QR code projected in the classroom, which the class teacher had previously prepared. Students were informed that their responses would remain anonymous and that they could withdraw from the study at any time should they feel uncomfortable answering the questions. The average time to complete the questionnaire was approximately 15 min. A total of 21 students did not complete the questionnaire or withdrew without stating a reason during the process.

2.3. Instrument

The questionnaire consisted of four sections: a sociodemographic section, the Boredom Proneness Scale, a portion of the Communities That Care survey, and a newly constructed questionnaire on eating disorders.

2.3.1. Sociodemographic Questionnaire

In this section, students responded to questions regarding their gender, age, and whether they lived in a rural or urban area. The questions were closed-ended, and students were instructed to select only the responses that applied to them.

2.3.2. Boredom Proneness Scale

To assess boredom, the Boredom Proneness Scale was used [21]. It consists of 28 items to which students indicated their level of agreement on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 indicates “strongly disagree” and 5 indicates “strongly agree.” A higher level of agreement with the statements was interpreted as indicating a greater experience of boredom, although no score range or cut-off points were applied in the questionnaire. The internal consistency of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, yielding a reliability score of α = 0.93, which indicates excellent reliability and internal consistency of the instrument used in this study. Prior to its application, the scale was translated into Croatian. The questionnaire was translated using the back-translation method (by a bilingual pedagogical expert), which was translated back into English to eliminate potential errors and ensure linguistic and conceptual consistency [22]. Based on all the questionnaire items, a new variable was created, which was calculated as the overall arithmetic mean of the responses to each item.

2.3.3. Communities That Care

The Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTC-YS) assesses risky behaviours in adolescents. In this study, a selection of items was drawn from the section addressing substance use and delinquent behaviour, specifically the parts evaluating the frequency of alcohol, drug, and marijuana use, as well as theft, using “drugs” as a term for illegal substances. In addition, several items regarding cyberbullying were incorporated to reflect modern digital risky behaviours. These included behaviours such as spreading false information or sharing explicit content online, and respondents indicated the frequency of performing such behaviours. These items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 means “never,” 2 means “rarely,” 3 means “sometimes,” 4 means “often,” and 5 means “always.” The scale consisted of six items in total. Internal consistency was measured using Cronbach’s alpha, which yielded a value of α = 0.75, indicating good reliability. The questionnaire was derived from the original Communities That Care Youth Survey [23], which had previously been translated to Croatian and validated for use [24].

2.3.4. Eating Disorder Scale

For this study, a new eating disorder questionnaire (Supplementary Materials, Table S1) designed for adolescents was constructed in Croatian. The content validity of the newly developed Eating Disorder Scale was established through a targeted review of the relevant empirical literature [16,17,25,26] on disordered eating in adolescents. This process guided the development of items addressing key behavioural and emotional indicators, including the frequency of binge eating episodes, associated feelings of guilt, perceived regularity and occurrence of overeating, and general patterns related to eating frequency. The scale was designed to capture core dimensions commonly identified in previous studies as early signs of disordered eating behaviours. It consisted of six items examining symptoms related to eating disorders, such as excessive food consumption, avoiding eating in social situations, and feelings of guilt after overeating. Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 indicates “does not apply to me at all,” 2 indicates “does not apply to me,” 3 indicates “neither applies nor does not apply,” 4 indicates “applies to me,” and 5 indicates “fully applies to me.” The internal consistency and reliability of the questionnaire were assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which indicated high reliability (with a score of α = 0.82). Based on the responses to all items, a new variable was created for further analysis, calculated as the arithmetic mean of all item scores.
In addition to the individual reliability analyses for each scale, the full questionnaire’s overall reliability, as measured using Cronbach’s alpha, was α = 0.91, indicating the instrument’s high overall reliability.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The data obtained were analysed using SPSS 29.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). The first step in the statistical analysis was to assess the normality of the data’s distribution. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (K–S test) revealed that the data were not normally distributed, which necessitated the use of non-parametric statistical methods. Initially, descriptive statistics (mean, SD) were calculated, followed by Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient and linear regression analysis.
The strength of the correlations was interpreted as follows: values of 0.1 were considered trivial; 0.1–0.3, small; 0.3–0.5, moderate; 0.5–0.7, large; 0.7–0.9, very large; values above 0.9, nearly perfect [27]. The multiple linear regression results were analysed using the coefficient of determination (R 2), interpreted as follows: values up to 0.13 indicated weak explanatory power, values between 0.13 and 0.26 indicated moderate explanatory power, and values above 0.26 indicated strong explanatory power of the predictors for the dependent variable [28]. Variance inflation factors were all < 2.0, and inspection of residuals indicated approximate homoscedasticity.

3. Results

The Mann–Whitney U-test results presented in Table 1 indicate statistically significant gender differences in several risky behaviours among adolescents. Male adolescents reported significantly higher engagement in alcohol use (U = 8837.5, p = 0.016, r = 0.14, 95% CI [0.02, 0.25]), marijuana use (U = 8637.0, p = 0.014, r = 0.12, 95% CI [0.003, 0.23]), theft (U = 9723.5, p <0.001, r = 0.23, 95% CI [0.12, 0.34]), and cyberbullying (U = 9400.5, p < 0.001, r = 0.20, 95% CI [0.08, 0.31]), when compared to their female counterparts. Conversely, no statistically significant gender differences were observed for drug use, disordered eating, or boredom, with effect sizes in these cases being small and confidence intervals including zero.
Spearman correlation analyses (Table 2) revealed substantial and positive correlations between boredom and various risky behaviours among adolescents. Particularly noteworthy is the strong correlation between boredom and eating disorders. Strong correlations among substance abuse variables and other risky behaviours underscore their interconnectedness.
Results from multiple regression analyses (Table 3) illustrate the significant predictive role of boredom on several risky behaviours among adolescents. Particularly prominent was the relationship between boredom and eating disorders, with boredom accounting for approximately 26% of the variance. Additionally, boredom significantly predicted behaviours such as alcohol, marijuana, and drug use, as well as cyberbullying and theft, although with relatively smaller proportions of explained variance. Unstandardised regression coefficients (B) are reported along with their 95% confidence intervals, indicating the precision of estimates. In particular, confidence intervals that do not include zero suggest statistically significant and stable effects of boredom on the respective risky behaviours.
Figure 1 presents a conceptual diagram illustrating the relationships between proneness to boredom, the leisure context, and adolescent risky behaviours. The model visually highlights how boredom may influence risky behaviours both directly and indirectly, through the perceived structure and quality of leisure time. While exploratory in nature, this diagram synthesises the associations observed in this study and offers a foundation for future research and pedagogical activities.

4. Discussion

The primary aim of this study was to examine the relationship between boredom and the emergence of risky behaviour patterns among adolescents. Understanding this connection is of particular importance due to its potential pedagogical implications. In identifying boredom as a factor associated with behaviours such as substance use, delinquency, or cyberbullying, this research highlights the need for preventive educational strategies both within the school environment and the broader social context. The findings underscore the relevance of boredom not merely as a transient emotional state, but as a pedagogically significant phenomenon that can inform the development of interventions aimed at promoting healthier behavioural choices among adolescents. In accordance with the previous literature and scientific findings, following the order in which the results were presented, we discuss (i) differences in the examined phenomena concerning gender, (ii) the associations between boredom and risky behaviours, and (iii) the predictive value of boredom with respect to risky behavioural profiles.

4.1. Gender Differences Regarding Risky Behaviour Styles and Boredom

The results of this study indicate statistically significant differences among adolescents aged 15 to 17 in terms of their perceived experience of boredom and their engagement in risky behaviour styles. It was found that boys are more prone to cyberbullying, marijuana use, alcohol consumption, and theft compared to girls. The other variables did not show statistically significant differences.
Before interpreting these findings in the context of the existing scientific literature, it is important to emphasise the considerable gender imbalance in the sample, which could have potentially influenced the results. The observed results concerning marijuana and alcohol consumption, theft as a form of deviant behaviour, and cyberbullying were expected and confirm the existing research regarding these issues. Within the Croatian sample of 1141 adolescents, such behavioural disturbances have already been found to be more pronounced among boys. Certain delinquent behaviours are almost consistently more prevalent among male adolescents; more importantly, male gender has been associated with drug use in the adolescent population [29,30]. In this study, while drug use as a general category did not reach statistical significance, marijuana—considered separately due to its widespread use and availability—was identified as a risky behaviour that was significantly more common among boys. This finding may be related to the predictive relationship between theft and delinquency.
A surprising finding was that eating disorders did not demonstrate statistical significance with respect to gender. Previous research has shown that such disorders are more prevalent among girls—a finding not supported by the current study [25,30]. Eating disorders are often linked to body image perceptions, with social media frequently promoting idealised body standards. Individuals who spend more than two hours per day on social media are more likely to adopt these ideals and apply them in their own lives; this has, to date, been more characteristic of girls, typically manifested through disordered eating behaviours [31]. Prior research has also suggested that reducing social media use correlates with a decreased incidence of eating disorders—a finding that may offer a potential solution to part of this issue [26].
In terms of cyberbullying, as the final category analysed in the context of gender differences, the results of this study also aligned with previous research findings in Croatian adolescent samples. Boys were found to be more likely to engage in cyberbullying, while girls were more often the victims of this type of violence [29].
One of the key findings of this study is the absence of statistically significant gender differences in perceived boredom among adolescents. This outcome is consistent with the heterogeneity of previous research in this area. While some studies have reported higher levels of boredom among adolescent girls, particularly noting a general increase in boredom with age being more pronounced among females [8], other studies have found that boys report boredom more frequently than girls [15].
Boredom is strongly associated with the organisation and subjective quality of leisure time. Greater satisfaction with leisure activities is linked to reduced feelings of boredom—a relationship that also appears to be relevant in the present study [32]. The lack of observed gender differences in boredom may, therefore, reflect a general equivalence in how male and female adolescents perceive and engage in leisure activities. This indicates that both school-based and family pedagogical activities must be individually tailored according to gender to have preventive, pedagogical and educational impacts within the context of quality upbringing.
The inconsistency of existing findings suggests that boredom remains a relatively underexplored construct within the adolescent population. Future research should consider additional pedagogical and contextual correlates to better understand the complex interactions between boredom, gender, and engagement in risky behaviours. Additionally, given the gender imbalance in the sample (73.6% female), the statistical power for detecting differences may have been reduced. Future studies with more balanced samples are needed in order to clarify this relationship.

4.2. The Relationship Between Boredom and Risky Behaviours

This study revealed that boredom was significantly associated with all the analysed risky behaviours. The strongest correlation was observed with eating disorders, while the weakest was found with theft. These findings suggest that boredom may serve as a contributing factor to the development of disordered eating patterns. Given the consistent association between boredom and various risky behaviours, it may be interpreted in this context as a negative and dysfunctional phenomenon, aligning with theoretical perspectives that conceptualise boredom as maladaptive [2].
Although correlations were observed, they do not imply causality. As a psychological construct, boredom is closely tied to the quality and structure of leisure time. Higher satisfaction with leisure activities has been associated with lower levels of perceived boredom and vice versa [32]. This implies that boredom generates a need for environmental stimulation [6] which, when unmet through meaningful or structured activities, may lead adolescents to engage in behaviours that exacerbate psychological or behavioural disturbances, such as eating disorders.
The most recent ESPAD (European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs) study reported that a significant portion of adolescents’ leisure time is spent on social media, with 94% of European adolescents reporting using social networking platforms in the past seven days [33]. In light of this, and in comparison with the present study’s findings, it can be inferred that the potential danger of boredom lies in its tendency to drive individuals toward environmental stimuli, many of which may be maladaptive. Social media and the internet—both of which are readily accessible to adolescents—may serve as stimuli and potentially contribute to developing or reinforcing disordered eating behaviours [34,35].
Although the current study did not directly explore the relationship between social media use and eating disorders, the established link between boredom and disordered eating highlights the possibility that adolescents often occupy their free time in virtual environments. This form of engagement may fail to mitigate boredom and could function as a harmful substitute for genuine, enriching leisure activities. Furthermore, the literature has suggested that boredom, when acting as the sole motivator for engaging in leisure activities (i.e., rather than intrinsic interest or personal motivation), may increase vulnerability to risky behaviours and behavioural deviance [36].
To better understand this dynamic, further research is needed on the phenomenology of adolescent leisure time, with specific attention to the role of boredom and the types of activities pursued. Additionally, substance use dimensions—specifically the consumption of marijuana, alcohol, and other drugs—were found to be equally associated with boredom in this study. This finding is consistent with prior research, which has demonstrated a robust and persistent relationship between boredom and substance use across adolescent populations [20,37,38,39].
The presence of this correlation in a Croatian adolescent sample reinforces the cultural universality of this association. It underscores the significant risks posed by boredom, particularly in terms of substance use. In such contexts, substances may act as perceived stimulants, offering adolescents a way to escape the monotony of unstructured free time. Future research should potentially include an analysis of existing pedagogical practices in schools and parenting styles, in order to identify—alongside gender—contextual factors that may better explain the observed relationships with boredom from a pedagogical perspective.
One effective response to addressing boredom is the purposeful structuring of adolescents’ free time. In this context, the TimeWise program is particularly noteworthy, as it plays a significant pedagogical role in the prevention of risky behaviours. The program focuses on educating youth about the value and management of leisure time, fostering the development of competencies for its effective use and encouraging the identification of personal talents and skills that can be applied within meaningful leisure activities. By helping young people to structure their free time and minimise boredom, TimeWise contributes to the prevention of risky behaviours, especially alcohol use, and promotes the realisation of individual potential [40]. This is one of the positive examples of a solution that can be implemented within school systems.

4.3. Explanatory Model of Boredom in the Context of the Development of Risky Behaviours

The data obtained in this study indicate that boredom in adolescents aged 15 to 17 was associated with all the analysed risky behaviours, with the most substantial predictive value observed with respect to disordered eating. Causality, however, cannot be inferred due to the cross-sectional nature of the data. Individuals prone to experiencing boredom often seek external stimulation to alleviate negative emotional states, which may result in behaviours that endanger their physical, psychological, and social well-being.
While these findings are not unexpected, it is important to emphasise that boredom is not inherently negative. Although not conducted in age-comparable samples, previous studies have shown that boredom can trigger overeating among university students [41]; in this context, overeating was explained as being emotionally driven, often referred to as emotional eating. Similar results have been found in other studies examining the relationship between boredom and binge eating, particularly among male adolescents [42]. Similarly to the aforementioned studies, the presented findings suggest that overeating is linked to emotional states—specifically, sensation-seeking behaviour manifested through food consumption.
Such evidence supports the applicability of previous research findings to the results of the present study. One possible reason that adolescents consume excessively is the pursuit of stimulation through food. The moderate association with boredom regarding the use of alcohol, marijuana, and drugs suggests the presence of additional unmeasured correlates that may better explain this prediction. One possible explanation may be the developmental stage of the participants, as adolescence is characterised by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social transitions. Peer influence and dissatisfaction with leisure time may be associated with boredom and substance use [43,44].
The scientific literature has frequently emphasised leisure time as a critical factor associated with boredom and risky behaviours. It is well-established that unstructured activities—namely, those that do not involve the development of skills, engagement in education, or participation in guided and purposeful leisure—pose significant developmental risks for children and adolescents. These risks include the increased likelihood of engaging in behaviours such as alcohol, drug, and marijuana use [11,29].
A national study in the United States exploring the relationship between boredom and risky behaviours has suggested that, beyond its connection to externalising behavioural disorders, boredom also poses a substantial threat to mental health. Specifically, it has been identified as a potential predictor of depressive symptoms which may, in turn, lead to other externalising and internalising disorders [45].
From a pedagogical perspective, these findings underscore the importance of developing programs that involve the adolescent’s immediate social environment—namely, the family and school—to foster healthy approaches to the use of leisure time. According to the bioecological model, the immediate environment is critical in shaping both risk and protective factors [46]. Preventive efforts within schools, such as those modelled by the TimeWise program [40], do not necessarily require focusing solely on addressing the negative consequences of risky behaviour. Instead, they may be directed toward identifying individual talents, fostering self-reflection on leisure time use, and promoting a more conscious relationship with free time.
A strong partnership between family and school in this context could effectively mitigate many potential risky behaviours by eliminating the influence of boredom in the lives of adolescents.

5. Conclusions

Boredom, as an interdisciplinary phenomenon whose manifestation in adolescent life can carry pedagogical consequences, emerged in this study as a scientifically relevant construct associated with a wide range of environmental challenges faced by young people. In this context, boredom has demonstrated significant research potential in the pedagogical and preventive sciences.
Despite the recognised potential of boredom to foster creativity, it appeared in this study as a developmental risk factor in the period between the ages of 15 and 17, suggesting a greater likelihood of contributing to problem behaviours than to positive developmental outcomes. Within the considered Croatian sample, proneness to boredom correlated with several risky behaviours; however, further longitudinal studies are required to determine causality. This highlights the need to continue exploring boredom as a phenomenon worthy of more profound scientific attention. Future research should include additional correlates that could facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the connections and associated power with boredom, both within adolescence and beyond this age range.
From a practical perspective, this study’s findings may serve as a valuable foundation for the development of new and innovative pedagogical approaches to behavioural prevention. These can be implemented in family contexts, school environments, and the broader educational system.
Nevertheless, several limitations of the study must be acknowledged. The sample used was convenient rather than representative, introducing moderate selection bias that limits the generalisability of the findings to broader adolescent populations. This bias was further compounded by the inclusion criterion that only students who reported experiencing boredom often were selected. Additionally, the sample presented a gender imbalance which may have affected the results of the study, limiting its statistical power to detect male-specific effects. The findings should therefore be interpreted with caution when generalising across genders. Additionally, the data were based on self-reports collected in a cross-sectional manner, which may not fully reflect objective states. This study was limited by selection bias, as only students who reported experiencing boredom occasionally or frequently were included. While this limits the study’s generalisability, the criterion was necessary to reduce instrument burden and ensure ethical appropriateness. Research using mixed-method approaches or real-time data collection—such as mobile applications—should be considered to increase the validity and objectivity of future findings, provided that all ethical standards for such methodologies are upheld.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/adolescents5030036/s1, Table S1: Items of the Eating Disorder Scale.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, B.M. and S.M.; methodology, B.M.; software, B.M.; validation, A.V. and S.M.; formal analysis, A.V.; investigation, B.M.; data curation, A.V.; writing—original draft preparation, A.V.; writing—review and editing, S.M.; visualisation, B.M.; supervision, S.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences (2158-83-06-23-2; approval date: 19 December 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data set used fot he currents study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Adolescents 05 00036 g001
Figure 1. Conceptual model linking boredom proneness, leisure context, and adolescent risky behaviours.
Figure 1. Conceptual model linking boredom proneness, leisure context, and adolescent risky behaviours.
Adolescents 05 00036 g001
Table 1. Gender differences in reported levels of boredom and engagement in risky behaviours among adolescents aged 15–17.
Table 1. Gender differences in reported levels of boredom and engagement in risky behaviours among adolescents aged 15–17.
VariableMale (n = 74)Female (n = 207)U
M±SDM±SD
Alcohol3.31±1.452.84±1.348837.5 *
Marijuana1.89±1.241.56±1.058637.0 **
Drugs1.36±0.891.27±0.817847.0
Theft2.00±1.311.34±0.909723.5 ***
Cyberbullying1.97±1.181.43±0.929400.5 ***
Eating Disorder1.66±0.681.72±0.837800.5
Boredom2.33±0.982.43±1.017050.0
p < 0.05 *, p < 0.01 **, p < 0.001 ***.
Table 2. Spearman correlation coefficients between boredom, eating disorders, and risky behaviours.
Table 2. Spearman correlation coefficients between boredom, eating disorders, and risky behaviours.
VariableBoredomEating DisorderAlcoholMarijuanaDrugsCyberbullyingTheft
Boredom/0.55 ***0.24 ***0.25 ***0.25 ***0.17 **0.15 **
Eating Disorder0.55 ***/0.16 **0.23 ***0.26 ***0.31 ***0.26 ***
Alcohol0.24 ***0.16 **/0.43 ***0.27 ***0.070.29 ***
Marijuana0.25 ***0.23 ***0.43 ***/0.60 ***0.28 ***0.41 ***
Drugs0.25 ***0.26 ***0.27 ***0.60 ***/0.33 ***0.53 ***
Cyberbullying0.17 **0.31 ***0.070.28 ***0.33 ***/0.40 ***
Theft0.15 **0.26 ***0.29 ***0.41 ***0.53 ***0.40 ***/
p < 0.01 **, p < 0.001 ***.
Table 3. Results of linear regression analyses examining the predictive effect of boredom on various risky behaviours.
Table 3. Results of linear regression analyses examining the predictive effect of boredom on various risky behaviours.
Dependent VariableR2FBβ95% CI
Eating Disorder0.26198.760.4030.511 ***[0.32, 0.48]
Alcohol0.05516.380.3250.235 ***[0.17, 0.48]
Marijuana0.05716.840.2630.239 ***[0.14, 0.39]
Drugs0.06318.790.2080.251 ***[0.11, 0.30]
Cyberbullying0.0184.970.1340.132 *[0.02, 0.25]
Theft0.0277.720.1740.164 **[0.05, 0.30]
p < 0.05 *, p < 0.01 **, p < 0.001 ***.
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Matijašević, B.; Mališa, S.; Vukašinović, A. The Role of Boredom in the Development of Risky Behaviours Among Adolescents. Adolescents 2025, 5, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5030036

AMA Style

Matijašević B, Mališa S, Vukašinović A. The Role of Boredom in the Development of Risky Behaviours Among Adolescents. Adolescents. 2025; 5(3):36. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5030036

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matijašević, Bruno, Snježana Mališa, and Antonija Vukašinović. 2025. "The Role of Boredom in the Development of Risky Behaviours Among Adolescents" Adolescents 5, no. 3: 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5030036

APA Style

Matijašević, B., Mališa, S., & Vukašinović, A. (2025). The Role of Boredom in the Development of Risky Behaviours Among Adolescents. Adolescents, 5(3), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5030036

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