Light and Autofluorescence, Multitasking Features in Living Organisms
Abstract
:1. Early History
2. Plants and Algae
2.1. Pigments Involved in Light Harvesting and Photosynthesis
2.1.1. Chlorophyll Photophysical Properties
2.1.2. Chlorophyll as Photophysical Biomarker
2.1.3. Chlorophyll and Algae
2.2. Pigments Not Involved in Photosynthesis
2.2.1. Phenols and Polyphenols
2.2.2. Betalains
2.2.3. Additional Polyphenols
Catechins
Ferulate
Coumarins
2.2.4. Lignins
2.2.5. Other Photoactive Phytocompounds
3. Bacteria
4. Fungi
5. Autofluorescence in Animals
5.1. Arthropods
5.2. Fishes
5.3. Reptiles and Amphibians
5.4. Birds
5.5. Mammalians
6. Bioluminescence
7. Normal and Altered Cell and Tissues
8. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fluorophores | Absorption/Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | References |
---|---|---|---|
Coumarins | 400–450 nm | 450–480 nm | [8] |
Quinine | 300–400 nm | 400–600 nm | [9] |
Ferulate | 355 nm | 450–650 nm | [7] |
Lignin | 355 nm/488 nm | 400–600 nm/500–700 nm | |
Suberin | 355 nm | 400–600 nm | |
Flavonoids | 355 nm/488 nm | 400–600 nm/500–700 nm | |
Kaempherol | 355 nm | 500 nm–800 nm | |
Dihydrokampherol2 | 355 nm | 500–700 nm | |
Tannins2 | 488 nm | 490–700 nm | |
Stilbenes | UV | 400 nm/490 nm–700 nm | |
Anthocyanins | 310–410 nm 860 nm multiphoton | 360–530 nm 680 nm | |
Chlorophyll | 350–475 nm/625–690 nm | 640–850 nm | [10,11] |
Porphyrins | 405 nm | 600–630 nm/670–750 m | [12,13,14] |
Phycocyanine | 550–670 nm | 650–700 nm | [15] |
Phycoerythrin | 500–590 nm | 550–650 nm | [16] |
Riboflavin/flavins | 360/445 nm | 480/540 nm | [17] |
Nicotinamides | 330–380 nm | 440/480 nm, free/bound | [17] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chlorophylls | 350–475 nm/ 625–690 nm | 640–850 nm | Light harvesting | [10,11] |
400–450 nm/ 650–690 nm | 640–850 nm | Spontaneous fluorescence: energy dispersion Induced fluorescence, biomarker of: alga in endosymbiotic studies; of functionality photosystem II; abiotic stress in higher plants | [19] [11,25,26,27,28,31,34,37] | |
Chlorophyll a | 400–450 nm/ 650–690 nm | 640–850 nm | ||
Abiotic stress in algae | [62,67] | |||
Photophysical biomarker to indirectly estimate flavonoids in fruit ripening; biotic stress | [40,41] | |||
Carotenoid | 400–520 nm | 520–640 nm | Participation to light harvesting; regulation of energy flow in photosynthesis; excessive energy dissipation | [10,22,23] |
Abiotic stress in higher plants | [39] | |||
Phycocyanin Allo-phycocyanin | 550–670 nm | 650–700 nm | Light harvesting, efficient energy conversion, photoprotection in cyanobacteria | [58] |
Food and pharmaceutic additives | [15,50,51,54,55,56,57,58,59] | |||
Models to improve photovoltaic applications | [15] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Phenolic compounds | ||||
400–520 nm, >550 nm | 600–700 nm/700–800 nm | Fruit phenolic maturity | [93,94,96,128] | |
Monitoring of own metabolism, trafficking and cell vacuole sequestration | [80,83] | |||
Anthocyanins | Abiotic/biotic resistance, biomarker of oxidative stress | [85,93] | ||
Estimated indirectly from chlorophyll AF as biomarkers in fruit ripening; biotic stress; nutritional advance of herbal food | [40,41,97] | |||
P-Coumaric, Caffeic, Ferulic Acids | 366 nm. | 430–480 nm | Attract and guide insect preys to the pitcher trap in some carnivorous plants | [113] |
Catechin | 280/450 nm | 300–340, 400–490 nm/ 550–600 nm | Tea quality and origin | [114,117] |
Ferulate | 355 nm | 450–650 nm | Diagnosis of plant disorders | [119] |
Coumarins | 400–500 nm | 500–600 nm | Photosensitizers. Chemical derivatives: pharmacology (e.g., anticoagulants); laser and labelling dyes. Spectral properties vary depending on substituents | [121,122,129] |
Lignin | 355/488 nm | 400–600 nm/500–700 nm | Wood quality, lignocellulosic biomass processing | [124,127] |
Porphyrins | 405 nm | 600–630 nm/670–750 m | Intermediates in chlorophylls biosynthesis; biomarkers of leaf photooxidation | [6,55] |
Quercetin Kaempherol, | 440 nm | 520–600 nm | Spice components, e.g., paprika between flavonoids with a role in auxin transport, gravitropism, and phototropism | [109] |
355 nm | 500–800 nm | [7,109] | ||
Betalains | ||||
Betaxanthins | 430–500 nm | 500–600 nm | Flower industry; studies on flowers vs. pollinator signaling; biomarker in protein tagging, diagnosis, betalamic production | [105,108,130,131] |
Betacyanins | 480–540 nm | --- | ||
Alkaloids | ||||
Quinine | 300–400 nm | 400–600 nm | Traditional medicine; fluorescence reference standard; pharmacology; soft drinks | [9,132,133,134] |
Campothecin | 300–400 nm | 450–600 nm | Anticancer drug development | [135] |
Berberine | 420 nm | 500–600 nm | Traditional medicine, anticancer drug development | [136] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Porphyrins | 405 nm | 600–630 nm/670–750 m | Intermediates/catabolites in heme biosynthesis; Biomarkers of bacteria/photodynamic treatment of acne | [143,144,147] |
Pyoverdine | 360–410 nm 450–480 nm | 450–480 nm | Biomarkers of Pseudomonas aureaginosa infection | [138,141,153] |
Riboflavin/ flavins | 360/445 nm | 480/540 nm | Intra/extracellular product biomarkers of performance in biowaste processing | [17] |
Nicotinamides | 330–380 nm | 440/480 nm, free/bound | [17,151] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ergosterol | 360–370 nm | 400–600 nm | Diet, precursors of vitamin D; marker of fungal infestation. | [160]. |
Flavins | 360/445 nm | 480/540 nm | Markers of fungal infestation, energy metabolism | [157,169] |
NADH | 330–380 nm | 440/480 nm, free/bound | [167,168,177] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pteridines | 320–325 nm | 425–450 nm | Butterfly classifying tool | [181] |
Papiliochrome II | ~400 nm | ~470 nm | ||
Resiline | 320–380 nm | 420–470 nm | Functional morphology and biomechanism in insects | [195] |
Other exoskeleton components (e.g., chitin) | 450–490 nm/530–560 nm | >510 nm/ 570–640 nm | ||
Lipofuscin-like lipopigment | Near UV, 400–500 nm | >460 nm | Membrane lipid peroxidation in Apis Mellifera | [200,201] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bilirubin-fatty acid a fatty acid binding protein complex | 450–500 nm | 500–580 nm | Advantage in communication and antioxidant protection in cryptic eels | [207,208,209] |
Guanine crystals | 450–600 nm | 600–700 nm | Visual contrast and signaling functions in cryptid fishes | [210] |
Bromo-tryptophan-kynurenine derivative | 300–350 nm/380–420 nm | 430–550 nm | Antibacterial role in some shark species | [212] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hyloin (dedihydroisoquinolinone) | 400 nm | 420–570 nm | Visual perception in terrestrial environments in Hypsiboas punctatus, a South America frog | [217] |
Likely a fluorescent-iridophore-specific protein. | 330–390 nm/400–500 nm | 400–500 nm/500–600 nm | Night communication and signaling, proposed in desert gecko Pachydactylus rangei | [215] |
Undefined, from skull bone tubercles | 353 nm | 360–500 nm | Communication and signaling, proposed in Chameleons | [214] |
Undefined, from bone | 365 nm | 400–600 nm | Alternate communication vs. loss of high-frequency hearing, proposed in South America pumpkin toadlets | [216] |
Fluorophores | Absorption /Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Psittacofulvins | 300–400 nm | 450–600 nm | Typical in parrots, proved to drive sexual choice, but un-influent on the social life of the Australian budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus | [226,227] |
Porphyrins | 405 nm | 600–630 nm/670–750 m | Typical in crepuscular and nocturnal birds, e.g., Caprimulgus ruficollis, still undefined | [228] |
Fluorophore | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Porphyrins in furs in: Didelphid marsupials; Pedetidae family rodents, likely endogenous from hair cuticle; Erinaceus europaeus, exogenous from spine microbiome; North American Glaucomys flying squirrels, from the diet | 405 nm | 600–630 nm/670–750 m | Undefined/crepuscular signaling functions | [229,230,231,233] |
Fluorescing System: Luciferase Enzyme-luminescent Luciferine | Energy Source/Absorption | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Luciferase-flavine based luciferin | biochemical reactions by redox enzymatic system | ~490 nm | Poorly defined biological meaning, apart reciprocal advantage from symbiosis with fishes; taxonomic and luminescence mechanisms studies. Sensing by biomechanical stimuli in Dinoflagellates, a model for artificial shear stress activatable polymersomes nanoreactors | [235,236,239,241,242,243,245,248,263] |
Luciferase-flavine based luciferine/yellow fluorescing protein | ~490/~534 nm | Vibrio fischeri, taxonomic, luminescence mechanism studies; association with the squid Euprymna scolopes: host interaction mechanisms studies | [238,249] | |
Not better-defined luciferin/luciferase couple | ~470 nm | Regulation mechanism by hormonal control in deep sea shark studies | [246] | |
Luciferase-3-hydroxyhispidin based luciferin | Genome plasticity in evolution, mechanism and possible functional roles of bioluminescence in the ecology of fungi (Agaricales, Armillaria and Mycene species). | [251,252] | ||
Non enzymatic, calcium dependent photoprotein (aequorin)/energy transfer to natural GFP | Absorption: 200 nm/400 nm/480 nm | 470 nm (aequorin)/509 (GFP) | Expansive production of fluorescing proteins for multipurpose labelling in biomedicine (FP palette generation) | [257,258,259,260,261,262] |
Fluorophores | Absorption/ Excitation (nm) | Emission (nm) | Main Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
NAD(P)H | 330–380 nm | 440/480 nm, free/bound | Energy/redox metabolism, reductive biosynthesis; phlogosis; carcinogenesis | [17,292,351] |
Flavins | 360/445 nm | 480/540 nm | Energy/redox metabolism; phlogosis; carcinogenesis | [17,289] |
Vitamin A | near UV/366 nm | <460 nm | Regulation of systemic body metabolism, cell proliferation-differentiation, immunity, development, reproduction; vision | [349,352,353] |
Fluorescing Free Fatty acids | 330–350 nm | 470–480 nm | Signaling in metabolic syndrome/liver steatosis | [349] |
Bilirubin | 366–450 nm | 540–600 nm | Heme/iron catabolism, liver functionality | [344] |
Porphyrins | 405 nm | 600–630 nm/670–750 m | Heme/iron metabolism/PDD/PDT | [12,278,279,280,281,282,283] |
5-hydroxytriptamine (5-HT) | near UV/366 nm | <400 nm | Uptake disorder at synapsis | [354] |
Collagen | 280–325nm) | 400–410 nm | Connective tissue/fibrosis | [17,355] |
Elastin | 300–400 nm | 400–500 nm | Connective tissue | [356] |
Cytokeratins | 355 nm/405 nm | 350–500 nm/450–600 nm | Intermediate filaments in epithelia, tumor markers | [357,358,359] |
Lipofuscin-like lipopigment | Near UV, 400–500 nm | >460 nm | Oxidative stress | [360,361] |
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Croce, A.C. Light and Autofluorescence, Multitasking Features in Living Organisms. Photochem 2021, 1, 67-124. https://doi.org/10.3390/photochem1020007
Croce AC. Light and Autofluorescence, Multitasking Features in Living Organisms. Photochem. 2021; 1(2):67-124. https://doi.org/10.3390/photochem1020007
Chicago/Turabian StyleCroce, Anna C. 2021. "Light and Autofluorescence, Multitasking Features in Living Organisms" Photochem 1, no. 2: 67-124. https://doi.org/10.3390/photochem1020007