Location-Based Augmented Reality in Education

Definition

Location-based Augmented Reality (AR) refers to educational mobile applications where a layer of digital content overlays the users’ physical environment when the users reach specific geographical locations. Unlike marker-based AR, which relies on predefined visual triggers (e.g., 2D images), location-based AR relies on GPS sensors and other positioning technologies and techniques to overlay digital content such as text, images, 3D models, animations, video, or audio onto the physical world based on the user’s real-time location. This approach transforms physical spaces into dynamic learning environments, enabling students to engage with educational content in a way that is tied to their immediate surroundings, adopting in this way principles of learning theories such as situated learning and place-based learning.

1. Augmented Reality (AR): Overview and Applications

Augmented reality (AR) is a rather old technology that has been constantly evolving over the years and has become particularly popular in the last decade due to advancements that have made this technology accessible to the broader public. The Sword of Damocles, a head-mounted display application developed by a Professor named Ivan Sutherland in 1968 [1], is widely considered to be the first AR system. AR applications can today be experienced through mobile devices, and this is the cheapest way to experience AR, which can also be experienced through head-mounted devices such as MetaQuest3, Apple Vision Pro, and Microsoft Hololens. Tech giants such as Meta, Apple, and Microsoft are heavily investing in AR technologies, and experiencing AR through their products is more impressive than experiencing AR through mobile devices. However, mobile devices are cheaper and are owned by almost everyone, and this is an essential factor that has contributed to the increasing popularity of AR. Google and Apple have also created software development kits (SDKs) that enable programmers to develop AR mobile applications (i.e., ARCore and ARKit).

AR creates a digital information layer that is placed on top of our real world, and as depicted in Figure 1, AR applications occupy a position that is closer to the left end of the “virtuality continuum”. In this continuum, the real-world environment is situated at the left end, and the fully immersive virtual environments are located at the right end. The intermediate space between the two ends is known as mixed reality, a space where various levels of integration between virtual and real-world elements co-exist [2] (Figure 1).

Over the evolution of AR technology, a number of categorizations have been proposed by various researchers. One widely recognized taxonomy focuses on how the AR experience is activated, and according to this taxonomy, we have the following categories:

1.1. Marker-Based AR

Marker-based AR relies on scanning markers, such as 2D images or 3D objects (e.g., paintings, statues, signs, etc.), to activate an augmentation, that is, digital content placement onto the real world. Scanning is typically carried out with a camera that is typically present in today’s mobile devices (smartphones, tablets). The digital content can include multimedia elements such as 2D and 3D images, animations, video, text, narration, and sound effects.

1.2. Markerless AR

Markerless AR does not require physical markers. In this case, users select digital content from a menu, which is then placed into the real world on demand. Markerless AR is supported by mobile applications or AR-capable headsets such as Microsoft HoloLens, MetaQuest 3, or Apple Vision. When mobile devices are used to experience markerless AR, digital content is often displayed on flat surfaces like tables or floors. The scientific literature identifies two types of markerless augmented reality: location-based AR (which will be described in the next section) and projection-based AR. Projection-based AR utilizes specialized types of projectors to display multimedia content, typically visuals in 3D form, on flat, two-dimensional surfaces such as the walls of buildings with special interest (e.g., municipalities, castles, palaces, etc.)

1.3. Location-Based AR (LBAR)

Location-based AR (LBAR), also known as location-aware AR, is a technology that is either mentioned in the bibliography as a subset of markerless AR or as a different discrete category. This type of AR does not require physical markers to trigger the AR experience, and augmentations are activated when users approach specific points of interest (POI) in the real world. In order to detect the user’s location, these applications can utilize real-time positioning systems (RTLS), such as GPS sensors, gyroscopes, magnetometers, beacons, etc. In outdoor settings, GPS sensors are the most common technology that is used to track the user’s position. However, a problem that may be encountered is that environmental factors like tall buildings or hills may obstruct signals and affect GPS accuracy. To overcome this problem, complementary technologies like visual localization algorithms, WiFi-based positioning, and inertial navigation are often employed.

Indoor positioning systems (IPS) are used for indoor environments like museums, where GPS lacks precision or does not work at all. These systems rely on technologies such as radio signals, optical systems, or Bluetooth beacons (e.g., iBeacons) to track users’ positions and trigger digital content on mobile devices. Beacons broadcast identifying signals that allow mobile devices to determine proximity levels—immediate, near, or far—enabling precise location-based AR experiences and different AR game scenarios. Furthermore, several museums use beacon-based AR technology to replace traditional audio tours, delivering multimedia-rich information about exhibits directly to visitors’ devices.

Furthermore, certain software packages also provide other simple ways of achieving an AR experience. For example, the software AR development environment Taleblazer (a product of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology-MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA) provides an alternative way with password-protected agents. When users are close to a point of interest, they can unlock the digital content of the experience by providing a password typically placed somewhere in the real space, such as stickers or signs placed near the points of interest.

Location-based augmented reality applications, also known as location-aware AR, are not a new technology but rather technology that has existed for several years. However, these applications became widely popular after the release of two well-known location-based AR games, Ingress and Pokémon Go, which were developed by Niantic in 2014 and 2016, respectively, for Android and iOS devices [3].

Ingress is a mobile application that utilizes the GPS sensor of the mobile device (smartphones and tablets). In this app, users are prompted to locate and interact with “portals” close to their GPS location. Portals are points of interest, such as buildings or landmarks with historical value and unique architecture (monuments, statues, murals, etc.), and other types of places that may interest the wider public, such as libraries, churches, memorials, places where public art is displayed, parks, etc. Furthermore, the application combines gamification (e.g., gathering points) and storytelling. Pokémon Go is another mobile game where users are prompted to utilize their mobile device (smartphone or tablet) GPS to find and interact with virtual Pokémons, which are visible in the real world through the mobile device’s camera. The concept behind these applications was to transfer the game action from personal computers to streets and other locations in the real world.

Other known applications are the following:

Google Maps Live View [4] offers two views for walking navigation: the 2D map and Live View. The Live View feature, available for specific places in the world, utilizes the users’ phone camera to recognize their surroundings and to display virtual pointers and arrows that aid users in navigating to their destination. In addition, information is displayed regarding the buildings and attractions, such as the distance from where the users stand, the opening hours of the facilities, and the services they offer, including visitor photos and reviews.

Sky Guide, developed by Fifth Star Labs LLC [5] is an educational astronomy tool that displays detailed information about the constellations visible from the user’s current location. Similar apps include Star Walk, Sky View, and Star Chat.

Location-based augmented reality (AR) games are now utilized across various domains, including entertainment, education, marketing, and tourism. These applications often also serve multiple purposes simultaneously. For instance, location-aware AR games created for tourism can entertain visitors while educating them about different aspects of the destination, such as its cultural heritage, history, and the natural environment (e.g., mountains, rivers, and wildlife).

The focus of this paper will be location-based AR applications in education.

2. Location-Based AR and Learning Theories

Location-based augmented reality applications are particularly useful for enhancing outdoor experiences, and they are closely connected to the fundamental concepts of three learning theories that have significantly impacted informal and outdoor education: situated learning, place-based education, experiential learning, and inquiry-based learning.

Introduced by Lave et al. [6] in 1991, situated learning emphasized that learning should occur within the same context in which it will be applied, that is, an authentic, real-world setting. Unlike traditional classroom-based approaches, situated learning does not prioritize theoretical or abstract knowledge; instead, it encourages learners to engage with practical, real-world problems, fostering learning through hands-on experiences and active participation in authentic environments. While apprenticeships are frequently cited as a classic example of situated learning, many other learning contexts reflect its core principles. These include workshops, field trips, activities in greenhouses, gardens, or national parks, and role-playing exercises. Furthermore, the learning activities are often highly practical and can incorporate various pedagogical methods, such as problem-based learning, project-based learning, or case-based scenarios.

The importance of context in learning has been known for many years [7]. Collins et al. [8] in their description of situated learning, emphasize the notion of learning and acquiring skills in contexts that resemble real-life situations. Learning is inherently tied to real-life contexts (e.g., social and physical). According to the authors, learning is, therefore, fundamentally contextual. Cognitive skills are context-dependent [9], and learners enhance these skills by immersing themselves in real-world learning environments [10]. Location-based AR technologies, which are context-aware, enhance learning by offering unique and dynamic contexts that blend the real and virtual worlds.

Place-based learning, closely related to situated learning, highlights the significance of community in the learning process. In this context, “community” refers to students’ local environments, including their historical, social, and cultural backgrounds [11]. Also known as community-based learning, this approach provides an immersive educational experience by integrating local heritage, cultures, landscapes, and opportunities. These elements serve as the foundation for studying a variety of subjects, such as language, arts, mathematics, social studies, and science, across the curriculum.

Place-based learning activities are often inquiry-based and unlike traditional approaches, where teachers present students with concepts, inquiry-based learning encourages the students to participate actively in specific tasks. Learners reflect on what they know in order to address a particular problem, which may be environmental, sociological, political, or economic in nature. While there are varying levels of inquiry, the main concept is that students develop their own research questions on a specific topic and perform data gathering and analysis to help them answer those questions. The teacher’s role is to act as a facilitator, providing timely guidance and advice to support students throughout their inquiry process.

3. Location-Based AR for History and Cultural Heritage Education

Location-based AR is reported to have been used the most in history and cultural heritage education and communication. AR technology enhances the experience of people visiting sites of historical and cultural importance through apps that take the form of treasure hunts, storytelling experiences, and city guides or apps that combine some or all these aspects. The information can come in various multimedia forms. For example, in some cases, 3D models of monuments of the past appear in their original form where they once existed. History education is often perceived as a boring subject [12], and often teaching aids are utilized to engage the students [13]. Location-based AR can help in the teaching of history since it is a technology that can engage students and facilitate learning.

A known early instance of a location-based augmented reality game that merges storytelling with history education and entertainment is REXplorer [14,15]. Created for tourists in Regensburg, Germany, this game employs location-sensing technology to enable interactions with digital representations of historical figures (spirits) who once lived in the area. These virtual encounters are linked to significant buildings throughout the city. REXplorer seeks to make history learning enjoyable for both young visitors and those who are young at heart. The spirits assist players on quests to various sites within the city center. Through these activities, participants discover the city’s historical center and learn about its history in an enjoyable and interactive manner.

Spierling et al. [16], in their paper, present the results of the SPIRIT research project. In their paper, the authors present a location-based augmented reality (AR) storytelling application to present historical events at important cultural places. This application shares similarities to REXplorer in the sense that it also uses spirit characters. More specifically, digital representations of people who lived in the past narrate stories about their lives. These spirits appear as transparent ghost-like overlays on the device’s camera and their stories unfold at the Saalburg Roman Fort, an outdoor museum near Bad Homburg, Germany. The application aims to provide an alternative and fun way for visitors to enhance their historical knowledge about the place through storytelling and multimedia augmentations. The app covers two stories: a romantic love story between young adults in the village and a story with a political plot.

One more instance of a location-based augmented reality application that merges gaming with storytelling is the “Unlocking Porto” app [17]. This game directs players through the key landmarks of Porto using an augmented reality route featuring mini-games throughout the journey.

Another example is the location-based AR adventure game “Viking Ghost Hunt” (VGH) [18], which is set in Viking Dublin and is inspired by a Gothic ghost story. Players take on the role of paranormal investigators, exploring the city of Dublin to hunt ghosts and solve mysteries by collecting evidence (Figure 2). This game was developed by Haunted Planet Studios [19].

Spotlight Heritage Timisoara is an initiative of the Politehnica University of Timisoara. The application showcases the city’s cultural and historical heritage through digital storytelling. It weaves together narratives about Timisoara’s communities, neighborhoods, and the personal stories of its past and present inhabitants. The initiative utilizes interactive touchscreen tables, desktops, laptops, mobile devices, and AR platforms to engage users [20].

Pacheco et al. [21] introduced a location-based augmented reality application designed for exploring and visualizing historical records. The application architecture seamlessly integrates a 3D historical reconstruction with geo-referenced historical documents and incorporates guided narrative components to enrich the storytelling experience. The Bergen-Belsen Memorial in Lower Saxony, Germany, was selected as the testing ground for the application concept. Bergen-Belsen, a former Nazi concentration camp, saw most of its architectural structures destroyed by fire after World War II. The application was developed to enhance visitors’ experiences in the museum’s outdoor area by providing a localized virtual reconstruction of the site as it appeared in 1944 and 1945, enriched with archival content from the memorial. The authors tested the differences in participant’s spatial behavior and spatial learning when experiencing Free and Guided navigation modes of the application. The results of their study suggest that active exploration of an environment leads to a better spatial understanding.

Kleftodimos et al. [22] presented two augmented reality applications for cultural heritage education. These applications combine gamification and narrative elements to teach students about the cultural heritage of an area in the Northwestern part of Greece and, more specifically, about a prehistoric lakeside settlement that once existed in this area. These applications were tailored specifically for K-12 learners. In the first application, called “Once upon a time in Dispilio” users can explore an open-air museum, a prehistoric settlement representation, with the use of a location-based AR application. Using the app, the users observe and interact with their surroundings to answer questions about the daily lives and activities of the settlement’s inhabitants and the tools and objects they use (Figure 3).

The second application, called “Crime in the Lake Settlement”, is a storytelling game in which users take on the role of an intergalactic investigator named Dr. Solve (Figure 4 and Figure 5). This investigator’s mission is to travel through space and time in order to solve mysteries by visiting places in the entire universe. More specifically, the investigator’s task this time is to solve a crime mystery at the prehistoric settlement of Dispilio. Through gameplay and storytelling, the users learn about the everyday lives and activities of the settlement’s inhabitants.

Kleftodimos et al. also [23] also developed another location-based augmented reality (AR) application for cultural heritage communication and education called “Doltso: A Traditional District of Kastoria in the Passage of Time”. Designed especially for K-12 students, the application guides users through the narrow-cobbled streets of a culturally significant district of their city, presenting multimedia information when users reach points of interest (POI) such as mansions, Byzantine and post-Byzantine churches, and other monuments (Figure 6). During the game, the users adopt various roles, such as the role of the tourist, architect, and active citizen, receive relevant information, and engage in tasks and challenges aligned with these roles (Figure 7). The AR game encourages users to observe their surroundings, read the app information, and answer questions associated with their immediate surroundings (Figure 8). Users also earn points for correct answers. Through the application, the users acquire a deeper understanding of their city’s cultural heritage through interactive gameplay and collaboration with their peers.

Koutroumanos and Stiliaras [24] created a game called “The Buildings Speak About Our City”, which combines location-based and marker-based augmented reality. The game was designed to encourage school students to explore the tobacco warehouse structures in a city in western Greece. These buildings hold significant historical, architectural, and cultural value, and the game aims to help students understand their role and impact on the city’s economic and cultural development. Like other similar applications, this game incorporates role-playing elements. The students were divided into groups and took on three different roles. The role of a historian, an architect, and a journalist. The game followed the principles of situated learning and constructivism.

TongSEE is another example of a location-based AR application designed to help students have a glimpse at the past through AR technology and help them learn the history of Tongji University, a prestigious institution in China with over a century of history [25]. Utilizing GPS and spatial mapping through the device’s camera, TongSEE tracks the user’s position and overlays relevant media onto corresponding locations (Figure 9). The application features a simulated map with various sites and their real geographic coordinates. Learners can choose to visit specific destinations and access general information about the site’s history, along with navigation guidance to reach the location.

TraceReaders is a location-based AR development platform that enables the creation of inquiry-based AR applications designed to engage students in evidence-driven, reflective inquiry in real-world settings [26]. “Young Archaeologists” is an application developed using this platform in order to support primary school students’ historical reasoning (Figure 10).

Tzima et al. [27], in their study present MillSecret, a multi-player Serious Escape Game with the aim of revealing hidden local cultural heritage in outdoor settings. Players must detect hidden physical objects and hidden digital information using the AR app in order to solve a riddle about the cultural asset of watermills. The paper describes the development process of the game, as well as the playing process and its evaluation, which aims to research the feasibility of the game in outdoor settings.

Capecchi et al. [28], developed a serious game utilizing GPS-guided augmented reality in the Renaissance village of Caldana, Italy, to raise awareness about urban heritage and encourage visits from the Alpha generation. The application takes the form of a treasure hunt, where children navigate through the village, encountering historical figures in augmented reality at key points of interest. By interacting with these characters and following a route with progressively increasing difficulty, players work to solve the challenges presented throughout the experience.

4. Location-Based AR and Environmental Education

Environmental Education is another area that can have significant gains from the integration of technology-driven, situated, or place-based learning activities, along with hands-on learning experiences. It aims to enhance students’ understanding of the environment and how it evolves while providing them with the skills needed to comprehend and face environmental issues. Due to the multifaceted nature of environmental education, which often entails investigating complex biotopes that vary over space and time, it is typically delivered through organized field trips. The use of location-based AR technology can further enrich this educational experience through digital layers of information that can be provided at specific points of interest through the field trip [29].

Kamarainen et al. [30] created the “EcoMOBILE project” based on situated learning theory. This project incorporates augmented reality (AR) along with environmental probeware for use during field trips to nearby pond ecosystems. These activities, combining both technologies, were designed to meet ecosystem science learning objectives for middle school students, helping them understand and interpret water quality measurements. During the field experience, students employed mobile wireless devices with the FreshAiR™ augmented reality app, to investigate the pond ecosystem and access virtual information and media superimposed onto the actual pond (Figure 11). This AR engagement was combined with probeware, allowing learners to gather water quality data at specific AR hotspots during the activity (Figure 12). The authors investigated the educational and instructional features by evaluating student attitudes, enhancements in content knowledge, and feedback from teachers, both written and spoken.

Srisuphab et al. developed “ZooEduGuide” [31], an AR application designed to engage and motivate young children and teenagers to learn about animals, wildlife, and ecological footprints. The app raises awareness about environmental conservation, especially in light of the urgent global need to protect wildlife. By enhancing the zoo experience, ZooEduGuide allows for personalized field trips. Additionally, the system’s flexibility and adaptability enable local zoos to customize their maps and dynamically schedule events.

“Mad City Mystery” [32] is an augmented reality game designed to explore location-based AR games’ impact on learning and improve students’ scientific reasoning skills. In this game, students are tasked with solving the mystery behind a mysterious death at a lake. They must integrate various sources of information, such as interviews and water quality tests, to develop a plausible explanation. The death is linked to a combination of personal factors, such as depression and alcoholism, and environmental issues, including exposure to harmful chemicals like TCE, PCBs, and mercury. Students take on different roles, such as a medical doctor, environmental scientist, or government representative, to access diverse digital content, including evidence. Depending on their location around the lake, they complete tasks, listen to interviews, collect measurements, and more. The game was evaluated with three student groups using interviews and surveys to assess their attitudes, understanding of environmental issues, and problem-solving abilities.

The evaluation revealed that specific game mechanics, such as challenges and role-playing, motivated students to participate in scientific argumentation and take on active investigator roles, moving beyond passive involvement. The authors emphasized the importance of place-based activities, which enabled students to apply their prior knowledge, such as familiarity with the area’s layout and known environmental toxins. This aligns with the core principles of place-based learning, which not only helped students grasp how scientific facts influence their personal lives and community but also enhanced their overall engagement with the game.

Söbke et al. [33] presented an application of a serious location-based AR game in the course “Urban Water Management” of the Master’s program Environmental Engineering. Using pre- and post- questionnaires, the students’ perceptions and preferences were recorded, and the results support the hypothesis that location-based AR games can be well-suited learning tools in higher education.

“Mystery at the Lake” was developed by Georgiou and Kyza [34] in order to assist students in comprehending scientific concepts related to lake ecosystems, such as food chains, bioaccumulation, and eutrophication. Through the app, learners developed evidence-based explanations for the decline of the population of mallard ducks that lived in the lake. The location-based AR application guided them to gather data from various spots by the lake, offering location-specific content such as videos, tables, and images. Additionally, students interacted with virtual characters, who encouraged critical thinking. A total of 135 10^th graders evaluated the application using a series of standard questionnaires. Pre- and post-assessments showed moderate learning gains, and immersion and engagement proved to be strongly associated with the gains.

Similarly, Klopfer and Squire developed an AR app with the name “Environmental Detectives”, [35] where students are given the task of gathering data in order to investigate how to address “a simulated chemical spill on a watershed”. In this case, the AR application provided students with information on topics like toxicology and hydrology.

Tzortzoglou et al. developed “EcoAegean” [36], a location-based AR game aimed at fostering key competencies in sustainable development among students aged 10–13. The application was developed with Taleblazer. The game’s objective is to educate students on sustainable management and protection of the marine and coastal ecosystems of Rhodes Island, encourage them to propose solutions for improving quality of life and regional development, and help them build strategies and skills for addressing challenges within their local communities. The game scenario was set in a real-world location where players face real environmental challenges. Therefore, the game provides an authentic learning experience supporting situated learning.

5. Location-Based AR and Language Learning

While most AR applications in language learning are marker-based applications, there is evidence that location-based AR can also be useful in this field. In many cases where English is taught as a Foreign Language (EFL), learning is often restricted to decontextualized classroom activities, leaving students with limited interaction and few authentic language learning opportunities. Despite years of efforts by teachers to create more contextualized learning, the learning activities take place in the classroom, where activities are typically pedagogical exercises and rehearsal tasks. Field trips could provide real-world learning experiences, but are rarely integrated into language instruction. Furthermore, technologies that enhance context-aware learning during educational field trips can address the challenges EFL classrooms face. Location-based augmented reality (AR) technologies can enhance field trip experiences by allowing learners to interact with virtual objects as well as their real-world environment, improving in this way their cognitive skills and ultimately lead to better learning outcomes.

An early interesting example of a location-based AR game for language learning is “Mentira”. This game was created by Holden and Sykes [37] for teaching pragmatics in Spanish to intermediate learners. The game is rather long, and it is designed to be played over three to four weeks. The game combines classroom activities, visiting sites, and gameplay. The setting where the game scenario unfolds is in the Los Griegos neighborhood of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The scenario of the game is about solving a murder mystery from the prohibition era and players can take on different roles during the game. More specifically, they take on the role of a member of four different families living in the neighborhood with different cultural backgrounds and communication styles. Players’ choices about where to go and how to communicate can trigger various events (e.g., a non-player character- declining to respond if a request is perceived as impolite) or unlock valuable game assets, such as clues to help solve the mystery. During the game, players practice pragmatic behaviors, such as determining the appropriate level of directness when making requests. Each family possesses unique information essential to solving the mystery, prompting students to collaborate and share details. Sent by their families, students explore the Los Griegos neighborhood, engaging with both digital avatars and real Spanish-speaking residents.

Richardson [38] developed a location-based augmented reality game using the Aurasma mobile software environment, which presented a variety of challenging language tasks for advanced learners as they explored the city of Karlsruhe, Germany. The evaluation of the game was conducted through observations made during gameplay and feedback from participants. The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of augmented reality games in engaging and challenging advanced language learners.

Another typical example comes from Liu and Tsai [39] who created an AR campus tour app that also helps students learn English. Using the app, students can point their cameras at specific locations on the campus and receive a text description on the screen, with an option to access more detailed information.

Another AR application is ImparApp, a mobile game created at Coventry University for learning basic Italian [40]. The game starts with a real-world treasure hunt set in the learners’ surroundings. As students explore the city, the app delivers directions in Italian and activates activities at specific locations. These activities involve interactive tasks, such as counting the steps to Coventry Cathedral, as well as exercises that require asking for and reporting specific information. The AR game was developed with Taleblazer.

6. Location-Based AR and Museum Education

Developing AR applications for indoor environments, such as museums, can be a challenge due to the imprecision or total failure of GPS sensors in these settings [41]. As already mentioned, several methods exist for developing AR applications that track a user’s position indoors and trigger content when the user approaches specific locations. These methods often involve indoor positioning systems, which combine electronic devices and specialized software to determine the user’s location. Various indoor tracking technologies exist, including radio-based, optical, magnetic, and acoustic systems. iBeacon technology is a widely supported hardware solution in authoring software for the development of location-based AR for indoor spaces.

An iBeacon is a Bluetooth low-energy device that transmits signals in a specific format. It regularly broadcasts packets that include identifying information and transmission power levels. IOS and Android operating systems provide SDKs that detect proximity in three levels based on signal strength: immediate, near, and far. These varying levels of accuracy help determine the user’s location and enable different game mechanics.

Tsai et al. [42] use beacons to create an AR museum tour guide app. The app is designed to offer instant information and guidance, along with various educational and entertainment features that enhance interactivity.

There are also alternative methods for creating location-based AR applications without using beacons or other positioning systems. As already mentioned, the Taleblazer software offers a solution through password-protected agents.

In their paper, Kleftodimos and Evangelou [43] explain how Taleblazer’s password-protected agent feature supports location-based AR applications in indoor spaces. They present an affordable approach for creating educational location-based AR experiences for interior spaces without requiring specialized devices. This approach uses the software platform Taleblazer, which is ideal for educators without prior programming experience. The paper also introduces an educational application for an indoor aquarium, providing inspiration and guidance for educators interested in creating similar applications or games (Figure 13 and Figure 14).

7. Benefits of Location-Based AR in Education and Challenges

As we have seen, location-based AR has significant potential in education, where it can facilitate immersive learning experiences in indoor and outdoor spaces. Students can view and interact with digital educational content associated with specific locations, making topics such as history, environmental education, cultural and natural heritage education, and language learning more engaging. Location-based AR is particularly suited for field trips, outdoor activities, and activities in indoor spaces such as museums, aquariums, etc.

At this point, it is worth noting that the literature on location-based AR represents a small subset of research on mixed reality, VR, and AR. Most studies focus on presenting applications and the development process, briefly reporting the benefits of this approach in learning. However, there is a scarcity of studies comparing this approach to traditional educational methods. Existing scientific literature highlights various benefits, some of which are specific to application design and scenario, while others appear more universal and aligned with the nature of location-based AR.

The benefits associated with the first category include benefits such as the enhancement of spatial learning, particularly in free navigational mode [21], the enrichment of co-creation experiences through real-time storytelling [44], and the improvement of scientific thinking and argumentation [32] among others. The authors of the latter study suggest that such games have significant potential for fostering meaningful scientific argumentation among students. Participation in the game required students to analyze evidence, formulate hypotheses, test them against empirical data, and develop theories based on their findings.

The benefits of the second category that are encountered in many studies have to do with the fact that this technology promotes important modes of learning, such as situated learning, place-based learning, as mentioned in Section 2, as well as inquiry-based learning. Situated learning enhances engagement, retention, and the acquirement of skills by facilitating learning in real-world contexts. It fosters deeper understanding through hands-on experiences that take place in the real world, and problem-solving in authentic settings, making learning more meaningful and transferable to real-life situations. This is important for many subjects where the learner cannot be isolated from the environment like in the case of environmental education.

Furthermore, location-based AR applications can also be designed to provide scaffolding during the outdoor and indoor explorations and assist in deepening students’ understanding. Students attending fieldtrip explorations, for example, should be supported with proper scaffolds, as otherwise they will be receiving information passively without considering its temporal and spatial dimensions [26,45,46].

Place-based learning is important to language learning, as it is reported in the study of Holden and Sykes [37]. As the authors mention in their study, formal educational environments are generally designed to be largely independent of place. Classroom settings separate learners from the outside world, while in terms of discourse, textbooks, syllabi, and instruction are often standardized across locations, making minimal reference to the real-life contexts of their subjects. This detachment is particularly evident in foreign language classrooms, where language is frequently taught in isolation from the communities, cultures, and places where it is naturally spoken. In this way the intercultural competence that is necessary in language learning and for producing competent multilingual citizens is not efficiently developed.

Location-based AR applications can encourage users to observe and explore their surroundings, answer questions about their physical environment, solve puzzles, gather points, and interact with real and digital objects that appear as augmentations. It is, therefore, understandable that AR applications promote physical activity, entertainment, and social interactions between the application users. Many studies report also increased engagement, satisfaction, and enjoyment.

Location-based AR applications, in many cases, are games or include game or gamification mechanics. Point or digital artifact collection (e.g., badges) and role-playing can be included in the application scenario. Storytelling is also a powerful communication technique that can be included in location-based AR applications, and there are examples in the scientific literature of applications that incorporate some or all of these features. The combination of these methods provides a very engaging and effective learning experience (e.g., [22,24]).

To summarize, the benefits that are most commonly reported in the literature from location-based AR are the following:

(a) increased motivation, (b) increased satisfaction, (c) increased enjoyment, (d) engagement, (e) enhanced interest for further exploration, (f) enhanced flow experience in AR games, and (g) physical activity.

Location-based AR applications in education can also support and enhance the following modes of learning:

(a) situated learning, (b) place-based learning, (c) experiential learning, (d) active learning, (e) authentic learning, (f) immersive learning, (g) game-based learning, (h) inquiry-based learning, and (i) learning through storytelling

Overall, location-based augmented reality offers an exciting mix of digital and physical experiences, improving users’ interactions with their environment and providing endless possibilities for innovation across various educational areas.

Despite the benefits, however, the literature also reports obstacles and challenges regarding location-based AR applications. These can be related to learning or associated with technical issues.

Some of these are as follows:

(a)

increased cognitive load,

(b)

the student’s attention is directed to the digital information (e.g., 3D objects, animations, etc.) and not to learning,

(c)

difficulty in managing the classroom,

(d)

instructors need to acquire the necessary knowledge regarding AR applications and devote extra time to preparation, but they often refuse to make this extra effort,

(e)

limited ability for the educators to intervene,

(f)

GPS-related issues,

(g)

network issues, poor mobile data reception,

(h)

danger of accidents since users move into the real world using their mobile devices to view and interact with digital content.

These challenges, however, can all be overcome with careful application design. For example, increased cognitive load can be managed by designing simple and intuitive user interfaces, by avoiding unnecessary multimedia, by chunking multimedia information, and generally by applying the principles of multimedia learning [47].

A challenge regarding this technology is also to balance gameplay and interactivity with the real world. Mads Haahr [48] argues that one of the key challenges for location-based AR games is providing an immersive gameplay experience while maintaining the player’s awareness of their physical surroundings. For instance, Pokémon GO immerses players in the game but often distracts them from paying attention to the real-world environment around them. While this may be acceptable for entertainment applications, it is unsuitable for educational experiences that are meant to support learning theories such as situated-based learning and place-based learning. In these cases, it is important that the learners are encouraged to observe and interact with the real world and gather information from their immediate surroundings. Mechanics such as those adopted in Pokémon GO and Ingress are generally not suitable for location-based educational games since they sacrifice presence in the physical space for immersion into the game world. Keeping this in mind an objective when designing location-based AR application scenarios is to keep the focus of the users both on the digital content of the application and also on the real world around them.

The developers of the Rexplorer application that was mentioned in Section 3 [15] also faced similar challenges while designing the application. During the early design process, developers faced criticism that users might become too focused on their device screens, detracting from the true attraction of Regensburg and its medieval architecture. Additionally, safety concerns were raised about users navigating physical spaces while visually engaged with a handheld screen. To address these issues, the design team opted for a small-screen form factor, choosing a phone over a larger PDA or tablet. They kept on-screen visualizations minimal and unobtrusive, using black-and-white static sketches instead of vivid color animations. This approach allowed users to quickly grasp key details while staying engaged with their real-world surroundings.

Other similar issues have also been revealed in the recent literature. Zhang et al. [49] explore the impact of location-based AR on tourists’ spatial behavior in an application designed for tourism. Their findings can also be valid for educational applications. Their study revealed that during travel, the location-based AR enhanced the tourists’ novel visual perception but constrained their spatial exploration behavior. Observations of participants’ spatial behaviors during the visit revealed that the use of location-based augmented reality (LBAR) slowed down tourists’ movement and focused their exploration within areas enhanced by AR effects. The authors state that if tourists use AR applications, they will be more likely to visit only places that are included in the application and have AR effects. To avoid missing noteworthy points of interest authors suggest that the design of the app should not miss important landmarks by including proper routes.

The risk of accidents can also be minimized by designing applications that operate in safe areas, away from traffic and uneven or hazardous surfaces.

Network and GPS issues can also be resolved by designing apps that unfold in places where there is good reception. Furthermore, software platforms like Taleblazer provide the option to design applications with custom (non-dynamic) maps that do not need to access the Internet in order to update the map information. Taleblazer also provides flexibility in configuring the GPS-related settings and also the “tap-to-bump” settings so that users are not stuck in places with poor GPS signal trying to spot the points set on the map by the application designer.

The challenge of classroom management can be addressed by designing age-appropriate applications with an intuitive interface and clear instructions. Teachers play a crucial role in adapting their level of involvement based on the students’ age group. For younger students, AR experiences should be highly guided, with tablets (if available) provided for small group work under the close supervision of an instructor acting as a facilitator. In contrast, older students can also work in groups but with greater autonomy, requiring minimal or no teacher intervention.

8. Software Tools for Developing Location-Based AR Applications for Education

There are several tools encountered in the scientific literature for creating location-based AR applications. There are SDKs that require advanced programming expertise and low-code programming environments that are suitable for novice programmers. Moreover, there are environments where AR applications can be developed without coding.

Location-based AR applications can be developed with SDKs such as ARCore [50] and ARKit [51]. ARCore is an SDK for developing applications for Android operating systems and ARKit for developing apps for devices running IOS.

Wikitude [52] is also a known SDK for developing location-based AR apps and Unity game engine can also be used for creating location-based AR for both Android and IOS platforms.

A low-code programming environment that is popular for developing AR location-based applications is Taleblazer [53,54]. TaleBlazer was developed by the “Scheller Teacher Education Program (STEP)” of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Taleblazer has a visual block-based programming environment similar to Scratch [21], another famous product of MIT.

There are also development environments that do not require writing code. Some of these environments that are encountered in the literature are the following: Haunted Planet Authoring Tool [19], ARIS [55], ARLOOPA [56].

Finally, there are some studies that conduct thorough comparisons of location-based AR development environments [57,58,59].

9. Conclusions

Location-based augmented reality has transformative potential across various educational domains, including history, environmental education, and language learning. By creating educational settings where digital information is integrated into the real world, AR enhances engagement and interactivity while supporting active and contextualized learning experiences that leverage situated and place-based learning principles. These apps foster deeper engagement and encourage experiential learning by situating educational activities in real-world contexts. These applications often also combine storytelling and gamification to enhance engagement, enjoyment, and satisfaction.

However, the scientific literature also records challenges and considerations that come along with the use of educational location-based AR applications, such as technical issues, the extra effort required by teachers to adopt this new technology and transform the way they teach, and keeping a balance between digital gameplay, real-world interaction, and learning to prevent students from immersing themselves entirely in the digital game and multimedia content.

Location-based AR has been around for some time (Rexplorer was presented in 2007 [15]) and it remains a promising technology in fields where situated and place-based learning can play a significant role, such as cultural heritage and history education, natural heritage and environmental education, language learning, and museum education.

Low-code software platforms make it feasible for many educators to develop their own location-based AR experiences (e.g., Taleblazer). Developing such applications, however, is still not easy for many educators because of the technical knowledge that is still needed. The development and release of more reliable platforms that do not require any programming or technical knowledge and are supported by all mobile operating systems (e.g., IOS and Android) will make the development of such apps feasible for every educator. Such applications exist for marker-based AR. Platforms such as AR Tutor are user-friendly and easy to use by everyone interested in creating such applications (e.g., live books) [60].

Finally, some features that could make an impact on the evolution of location-based applications are the following: (a) personalization based on user preferences, behaviors, and environmental conditions, (b) non-linear narratives that adapt content based on user decisions (interactive storytelling), (c) collaborative experiences where multiple users are able to interact with common AR elements (d) affordable AR glasses in order for location-based AR applications to be experienced also without mobile devices.