Encyclopedia

The evolution of tall buildings has been shaped by distinct architectural styles, beginning around 1875 and progressing through various stylistic architectural movements. These changes were driven by advancements in structural engineering and digital design technologies, leading to greater experimentation with form and function. Energy and resource conservation of the late 20th century instigated a noteworthy focus on sustainability. Beyond that, the early 21st century saw a significant shift toward a new breed of tall buildings, a suitable architectural vocabulary for “high-performance” tall buildings, in which sustainability with a focus on energy efficiency is joined with the performance of other active and passive functional systems. This paper presents an overview of high-performance tall buildings by exploring key technologies, materials, innovations, safety, durability, and indoor environmental quality. Strategies that have emerged to address skyscrapers’ environmental and economic challenges are also crucial in such a building. It highlights the importance of optimizing and integrating building systems, improving energy efficiency, minimizing resource consumption, and ensuring long-term occupant health and productivity. Furthermore, this study identifies five key dimensions—structural materials and systems, energy-efficient design, high-performance façades, performance monitoring, and integrating building services systems—demonstrating how these factors contribute to environment-conscious urban development and resilient architectural and engineering design. It is concluded that these buildings are poised to redefine urban environments by leveraging advanced technologies, AI-driven management, IoT interconnectivity, health-focused elements, and climate resilience. Also, tall, high-performance buildings will be increasingly automated to an unknown limit, and AI will play a prominent role in the future. Full article

A mixed-methods approach combines qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to provide a comprehensive understanding of complex social phenomena in healthcare. This approach leverages the strengths of both methodologies to address research questions that cannot be fully answered by a single method. While quantitative data offer measurable patterns and generalizability, qualitative research provides critical insights into the human experiences, cultural contexts, and systemic factors that underlie these patterns, and such elements are often missed by purely statistical analyses. Notably, qualitative components can uncover why interventions succeed or fail in real-world settings, adding explanatory power to quantitative results. By integrating numerical data analysis with in-depth contextual insights, mixed-methods research enables researchers to explore, explain, and generalize findings in healthcare settings more holistically than either method could achieve alone. Full article

Sustainable solutions to the use of petrochemical products have been increasingly sought after in recent years. While alternatives such as biofuels have been extensively explored and commercialized, major challenges remain in using heterogeneous feedstocks and scaling-up processes. Among biofuels, higher alcohols have recently gained renewed interest, especially in the context of upcycling agri-food residues and other industrial organic wastes. One of the higher alcohols produced via fermentation is butanol, which was developed over a century ago. However, the commercial production of butanol is still not widespread, although diverse feedstocks are readily available. Hydrolysis of the feedstocks and scale-up challenges in the fermentation and purification of butanol are recurring bottlenecks. This review addresses the current state of fermentative butanol production and opportunities to address scale-up challenges, including purification. With the significant interest and promise of precision fermentation, this review also addresses some of the recent advances and potential for enhanced fermentative butanol production. Full article

In Japanese organizations, those who join earlier are called senpai (seniors), those who join later are kohai (juniors), and those who join in the same year are called doki (peers). The relationships among senpai, kohai, and doki function as an informal hierarchical structure working in tandem with the formal job-based organizational hierarchy. These relationships are deeply rooted in unique Japanese concepts, such as ba, the Confucian cultural tradition that influenced the formation of Japanese society, and the historical background of large organizations in modern Japan. Specifically, the seamless school-to-work transition due to the batch hiring of new graduates every April creates a similar hierarchical structure to that of senpai, kohai, and dokyusei (classmates) in schools. The balance between the formal job-based hierarchy and informal seniority-based (senpai–kohai–doki) hierarchy has been the base of the stable and harmonious organizational characteristics that enable effective knowledge management and efficient operations but poses challenges in adapting to new environments. Full article

This manuscript introduces a comprehensive framework for augmenting classical statistical methodologies through the targeted integration of core quantum mechanical principles—specifically superposition, entanglement, measurement, wavefunctions, and density matrices. By concentrating on these foundational concepts instead of the whole expanse of quantum theory, we propose “quantum-inspired” models that address persistent shortcomings in conventional statistical approaches. In particular, five pivotal distributions (normal, binomial, Poisson, Student’s t, and chi-square) are reformulated to incorporate interference terms, phase factors, and operator-based transformations, thereby facilitating the representation of multimodal data, phase-sensitive dependencies, and correlated event patterns—characteristics that are frequently underrepresented in purely real-valued, classical frameworks. Furthermore, ten quantum-inspired statistical principles are delineated to guide practitioners in systematically adapting quantum mechanics for traditional inferential tasks. These principles are illustrated through domain-specific applications in finance, cryptography (distinct from direct quantum cryptography applications), healthcare, and climate modeling, demonstrating how amplitude-based confidence measures, density matrices, and measurement analogies can enrich standard statistical models by capturing more nuanced correlation structures and enhancing predictive performance. By unifying quantum constructs with established statistical theory, this work underscores the potential for interdisciplinary collaboration and paves the way for advanced data analysis tools capable of addressing high-dimensional, complex, and dynamically evolving datasets. Complete R code ensures reproducibility and further exploration. Full article

This paper aims to present the phenotypic characteristics, such as length, width, circular diameter, volume, surface area to cross-sectional area ratio, surface uniformity, and surface texture, of the foodborne pathogens Salmonella enterica serovar Agona, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter jejuni. It is a novel “field-guide” presentation of the observable morphological characteristics of these four species in the form of a Dichotomous Key. Phenotypic values of the pathogens were measured using a high-accuracy, nano-level-resolution 3D laser confocal scanning microscope. All samples were fixed with glutaraldehyde and stained with methylene blue, ensuring morphological preservation. The images of the pathogens were captured under various imaging modes, including 3D, laser, and transmission electron microscopy resolutions. Results show that these pathogens exhibit distinct morphological and surface properties, with Campylobacter jejuni showing unique features. The dichotomous key shows a simplified way of classifying selected foodborne pathogens from their morphometric properties. The morphometric measurements, in many instances first reported in the literature, and images provide a readily observable way to identify and classify microorganisms, allowing researchers to potentially study evolutionary relationships, assess species diversity, and understand how organisms interact with their environment, especially when genetic information is limited or difficult to obtain. Full article

Work-related stress is a critical issue that demands prevention strategy and continuous monitoring due to its widespread influence on workers, businesses, and the global economy. The primary drivers of employees’ work-related stress are psychosocial risks, which arise when key work characteristics—such as job demands, autonomy, or role clarity—are mismanaged, leading to harmful consequences. Conversely, effectively managing these factors can promotes well-being and performance. Supervisors play a central role in this dynamic process of either mitigating or exacerbating psychosocial working conditions. As such, stress-preventive management competencies (SPMCs) are essential for promoting employee and organisational health. SPMCs refer to a set of supervisory behaviours—including planning, organising, setting objectives, and creating and monitoring systems—that contribute to a positive perception of the psychosocial work environment among employees. This entry, by approaching the existing literature on work stress models, psychosocial perspectives, and related management competencies frameworks, aims to provide a comprehensive overview of SPMCs, identifying key insights and proposing directions for future research. Full article

Overpopulation’s central role in environmental degradation is intermittently challenged. This article assesses the impact of mounting demographic pressures on six critical global sustainability challenges: deforestation, climate change, biodiversity loss, fishery depletion, water scarcity, and soil degradation. By synthesizing findings from hundreds of peer-reviewed studies, the article offers a comprehensive review of the effects of expanding human populations on the most pressing current environmental problems. Although the rate of population growth worldwide is slowing, human numbers are expected to continue increasing on Earth until the end of the century. Current research confirms that overpopulation causes substantial and potentially irreversible environmental impacts that cannot be ignored if international sustainability policy is to be effective. Full article

The logarithmic derivative has been shown to be a useful tool for data analysis in applied sciences because of either simplifying mathematical procedures or enabling an improved understanding and visualization of structural relationships and dynamic processes. In particular, spatial and temporal variations in signal amplitudes can be described independently of their sign by one and the same compact quantity, the inverse logarithmic derivative. In the special case of a single exponential decay function, this quantity becomes directly identical to the decay time constant. When generalized, the logarithmic derivative enables local gradients of system parameters to be flexibly described by using exponential behavior as a meaningful reference. It can be applied to complex maps of data containing multiple superimposed and alternating ramping or decay functions. Selected examples of experimental and simulated data from time-resolved plasma spectroscopy, multiphoton excitation, and spectroscopy are analyzed in detail, together with reminiscences of early activities in the field. The results demonstrate the capability of the approach to extract specific information on physical processes. Further emerging applications are addressed. Full article

Nation branding refers to the strategic management of a country’s image to ensure that it is a fair, balanced, and useful reflection of the country itself. A strong nation brand is fundamental to its diplomacy, economy, and the well-being of its inhabitants, among other elements. To monitor the degree of this strength, different international indexes are periodically created and published. This entry focuses on introducing the concept of nation branding, and on describing the methodologies and latest results of the rankings that are currently considered most relevant in both academia and industry. These rankings are divided into two categories, namely, general nation branding indexes (Nation Brands Index, Future Brand Country Index, RepCore Nations, Good Country Index, Best Countries ranking) and field-specific nation branding indexes (Global Soft Power Index, Country Brand Ranking Tourism Edition, Country Brand Ranking Trade Edition, World Economic Outlook, Better Life Index). Full article

Food waste is a significant challenge for modern societies, leading to environmental, social, and economic consequences. In developed countries, including Greece, food waste primarily occurs the final stage of consumption, making consumer behaviour a key factor in addressing this issue. This entry aims to highlight consumer behaviour regarding to food waste in Greece from 2012 to 2024 by synthesizing and evaluating published and unpublished research. Using a systematic review approach, this entry identifies the key trends, behavioural patterns, and determinants of food waste among Greek consumers. The findings highlight the impact of socioeconomic characteristics, economic conditions, and consumer awareness on food waste behaviour. Notably, financial constraints during economic crises have influenced waste reduction, while a growing awareness of food labelling and meal planning has emerged as a consistent trend over time. Additionally, segmentation analyses reveal distinct consumer groups based on their waste-conscious behaviours, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions. This entry contributes to the literature by offering a comprehensive overview of consumer behavioural trends over a 12-year period, identifying knowledge gaps, and proposing strategic directions for future research and policy-making. Understanding these behavioural patterns is essential for developing effective measures to reduce food waste and promote sustainable consumption practices. Full article

Processed cheese (PC) is a widely consumed dairy product and has undergone significant evolution over time, leading to various formulations aimed at enhancing texture and functionality. This review addresses the role of starch addition on PC, focusing on starch interactions with milk proteins and understanding its influence on the rheological properties, microstructure, and overall quality of PC. Our key findings indicate that starch serves as a cost-effective ingredient that can replace or supplement dairy components, improving texture and water-binding capacity while reducing formulation costs. Generally, starches containing a higher amylose content are associated with the increased hardness and decreased meltability of PC. The insights provided in this review underscore the importance of understanding starch–milk component interactions to optimize PC formulations, paving the way for future research and innovation. Full article

In vivo dosimetry (IVD) is a vital component of modern radiotherapy, ensuring accurate and safe delivery of radiation doses to patients by measuring dose parameters during treatment. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of IVD, covering its fundamental principles, historical development, and the technologies used in clinical practice. Key techniques, including thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), optically stimulated luminescent dosimeters (OSLDs), diodes, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), and electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs), are discussed, highlighting their clinical applications, advantages, and limitations. The role of IVD in external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy, and pediatric treatments is emphasized, particularly its contributions to quality assurance, treatment validation, and error mitigation. Challenges such as measurement uncertainties, technical constraints, and integration into clinical workflows are explored, along with potential solutions and emerging innovations. The paper also addresses future perspectives, including advancements in artificial intelligence, adaptive radiotherapy, and personalized dosimetry systems. This entry underscores the critical role of IVD in enhancing the precision and reliability of radiotherapy, advocating for ongoing research and technological development. Full article

The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a strategic management framework introduced by Kaplan and Norton in 1992 to address the limitations of traditional performance measurement systems. It integrates financial and non-financial performance measures across four perspectives—financial, customer, internal processes, and learning and growth. Over three decades, the BSC has evolved into a comprehensive strategic tool adopted across industries and sectors worldwide. While its adaptability and integrative approach are strengths, criticisms include challenges in implementation, assumed cause–effect relationships, and relevance in decentralized organizations. Future research should investigate cultural adaptation; the incorporation of environmental, social, and governance metrics; and advancements driven by artificial intelligence to maintain ongoing relevance. Full article

Radiolysis of water and aqueous solutions refers to the decomposition of water and its solutions under exposure to ionizing radiation, such as γ-rays, X-rays, accelerated particles, or fast neutrons. This exposure leads to the formation of highly reactive species, including free radicals like hydroxyl radicals (^●OH), hydrated electrons (e⁻_aq), and hydrogen atoms (H^●), as well as molecular products like molecular hydrogen (H₂) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). These species may further react with each other or with solutes in the solution. The yield and behavior of these radiolytic products depend on various factors, including pH, radiation type and energy, dose rate, and the presence of dissolved solutes such as oxygen or ferrous ions, as in the case of the ferrous sulfate (Fricke) dosimeter. Aqueous radiation chemistry has been pivotal for over a century, driving advancements in diverse fields, including nuclear science and technology—particularly in water-cooled reactors—radiobiology, bioradical chemistry, radiotherapy, food preservation, wastewater treatment, and the long-term management of nuclear waste. This field is also vital for understanding radiation effects in space. Full article

The deployment of virtual machines (VMs) within the Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) layer across public, private, or hybrid cloud infrastructures is prevalent in various organisational settings for hosting essential business services. However, achieving rapid elasticity, or autoscaling, and ensuring quality of service amidst fluctuating service demands and available computing resources present significant challenges. Unlike the Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS) layers, where cloud providers offer managed elasticity features, the VMs at the IaaS layer often lack such capabilities. This paper scrutinises the constraints surrounding the rapid elasticity of VMs within single and hybrid cloud environments at the IaaS layer. It provides a critical analysis of the existing research gaps, emphasising the necessity for the horizontal elasticity of VMs extended across hybrid clouds, coupled with predictive capabilities integrated into the elasticity mechanism. This paper’s focus is particularly beneficial in scenarios where workloads require VM provisioning from multiple clouds to eliminate vendor lock-in and enhance quality of service (QoS) assurances, especially in instances of platform failures. Through critical examination, several research challenges are identified, delineating the existing research gap and outlining future research directions. This paper contributes to the research challenges of VM elasticity in complex cloud environments and underscores the imperative for innovative solutions to address these challenges effectively. Full article

Citizen developers, individuals outside formal IT departments who create applications using low-code/no-code platforms, are becoming increasingly pivotal as organizations navigate digital transformation. The driving force behind this paradigm shift stems from an exponentially growing demand for software solutions that consistently outpaces traditional IT departments’ capacity. Consequently, companies are turning their attention toward citizen developers, entrusting them with crafting solutions. In this work, we perform a systematic review of the existing literature to unearth the pivotal themes and subthemes and identify the factors contributing to citizen developers’ effectiveness. Our systematic review revealed a significant gap in scholarly understanding of factors contributing to citizen developers’ effectiveness. While some studies touched on these factors, none explored them comprehensively or provided an integrated framework for understanding their interrelationships. To fill this void, we propose a conceptual model to advance the understanding of the factors that influence the effectiveness of citizen developers in creating applications. While the model contributes to the theoretical understanding of citizen development, practical implications further reinforce its value. By leveraging the model, organizations can make informed decisions to enhance the productivity of citizen developers, align digital transformation strategies, and foster innovation. Full article

As a consequence of the European Union introducing the prohibition of supplying antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) in diets in 2006, antibiotic alternatives for poultry feed have become one of the most central issues. In general, probiotics and prebiotics are highly effective additives that improve host health and prevent pathogen colonization by modulating immune functions, altering the intestinal microecology, and enhancing digestion. However, the specific situations in which probiotics or prebiotics should be used still require further research. In addition, the advanced applications of probiotics and prebiotics, such as in ovo injection, also need to be investigated to improve the host performance. In the following review, we summarize various probiotic and prebiotic supplementation methods and compare the specific conditions for their use to improve poultry production management. Full article