Relationship between Tooth Brushing and Hand Washing by Family Type among Adolescents: A 2020 Nationally Representative Korean Survey
by
,
Eun-Jeong Kim
1
,
Gyeong-Won Ko
2,
Eun-Ji Seong
2,
Su-Jin Lee
2,
Ye-Seo Lee
2,
Chae-Rim Lee
2 and
Hye-Ju Lee
2,* 1
School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health Science, Sun Moon University, Asan 31460, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Hygiene 2024, 4(3), 317-325; https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene4030025
Submission received: 17 June 2024
/
Revised: 23 July 2024
/
Accepted: 31 July 2024
/
Published: 5 August 2024
Abstract
:Habits formed during adolescence tend to persist into adulthood, and correcting poor habits or behaviors during this time is more effective than at other times. Particularly, parents and caregivers should encourage good hygiene habits in their adolescent children by setting a positive example themselves. Using logistic regression, we analyzed the association between brushing teeth after lunch and washing hands before lunch by family type among 54,848 adolescents from the 17th Youth Health Behavior Survey raw data in 2021. Four logistic regression models were used to adjust for confounders hierarchically. In all models, adolescents who practiced tooth brushing after lunch were 2.09 times more likely to practice hand washing before lunch than those who did not. With and without adjustment, we found that the association between adolescents’ tooth brushing and hand washing practices in two-parent households was stronger than the association between adolescents’ tooth brushing and hand washing practices in single-parent households. Associations were found between tooth brushing and hand washing practices, and these associations were higher among adolescents in two-parent households than among adolescents in single-parent households. The finding of a significant link between family type and personal hygiene habits indicates the need for interventions to enhance the oral health of children and adolescents. Such interventions should be customized to reflect the specific characteristics of the child’s household.
1. Introduction
Since the outbreak of COVID-19 in Korea in January 2020, public health measures such as social distancing, wearing masks, and vaccination have been strengthened. There has also been a surge of interest in hygiene practices such as hand washing and coughing etiquette, which continues to this day [1]. Disease can be prevented through good hygiene, and the first step in promoting personal hygiene is hand washing. Hand washing is the most effective preventive measure for stopping the transmission of many bacteria and viruses through the hands [2]. It is also an important health habit that helps promote and maintain the health of the community and reduces the risk of infection. The Korean Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recently conducted a survey on hand washing practices in Korea and found that 63.4% of Koreans wash their hands. However, this figure is significantly lower than the 82% hand washing rate in the United States, and 45.4% of Korean teenagers do not wash their hands [3].
According to the 2018 Korean Child Oral Health Survey conducted by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, the prevalence of caries in 12-year-old children was 1.84, which is higher than the average of 1.2 for countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). When analyzing the national policy target of ‘increasing the prevalence of tooth brushing immediately after lunch among 12-year-olds’, with a target of a 50% increase by 2020, the prevalence of tooth brushing immediately after lunch among 12-year-olds was 33.3%, with 25.9% for males and 41.3% for females. This was lower than 68.2% for ‘after breakfast’, 55.3% for ‘after dinner’, 6.2% for ‘after snack’, and 60.3% for ‘before bedtime’, and the average number of times per day 12-year-olds brushed their teeth was 2.5 [4]. In addition, the oral health of Korean adolescents has improved over the past 20 years, but the trend has stalled in the past 10 years or so [4].
Adolescence is a period of physical, mental, and social transition in human development and a time of health education. According to previous studies, it has been reported that parental characteristics, such as parents’ lifestyle habits and parenting attitudes, have a significant impact on the health of their children and the formation of health-related lifestyle habits. Parents’ unhealthy lifestyle habits can affect their children’s health through their children’s lifestyle habits [5]. Parents generally share the same environment as their children, as well as genetic predispositions. Because children form their lifestyle habits by imitating their parents’ behavior, the parents’ lifestyle habits directly affect their children [6]. Adolescents in Korea are at high risk for infectious diseases because they spend most of their time in a group in a certain place. Droplets emitted from coughs and sneezes can settle on fomites at a distance of 1–2 m from the emitter. These droplets can project huge numbers of virus particles to nearby targets. The virus can contaminate an individual’s hands and then deposit virus particles on the face, making hands a major vector for transmission of healthcare-related infections [7]. In the case of oral health, the eruption of permanent teeth is completed during adolescence, so it is necessary to manage dental caries; the most basic way to prevent dental caries is to manage the gingival bacterial film, and the primary prevention method is tooth brushing. Therefore, it is very important to develop good hygiene concepts and practices during adolescence, a transitional period that determines a person’s health for the rest of their life [8,9]. Parents and caregivers, who are the foundation of their children’s behavior, should help them form good hygiene concepts and habits during adolescence. Habits formed during adolescence tend to persist into adulthood, and correcting poor habits or behaviors during this time is more effective than at other times [10]. In particular, parents and caregivers should work to encourage good hygiene habits in their adolescent children by example. These parental efforts have a positive impact on the healthy growth and development of adolescents.
Recently, in Korean society, the number of single-parent families has been rapidly increasing due to the same reason as the divorce rate. According to previous research, there are studies showing that children from two-parent families and single-parent families show many differences in parenting style and level of development [11]. There are reports that these differences in family type also affect children’s health behaviors. Adolescents from single-parent families had higher smoking and drinking experiences, stress, sadness and despair, and suicidal thoughts than adolescents from two-parent families. Therefore, in order to improve the health of adolescents from single-parent families, it was suggested that community interest and policy support should be provided simultaneously for economic problems caused by incomplete family structures, gaps in children’s care, and emotional problems [12].
Although differences in family type can be a very important factor in the health of adolescents, there is no research that considers family type in research on hygiene habits. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the association between tooth brushing, represented by oral hygiene, and hand washing, represented by personal hygiene, and to identify differences between two-parent families based on family type, in order to provide a basis for health education and health promotion interventions.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Subjects and Data Collection
This study was conducted using raw data from the 17th Youth Health Behavior Survey conducted in 2021. The survey was conducted among 54,848 secondary school students in 800 schools across the country. The data collection method was based on online registration of information such as overall class characteristics and the number of male and female students in the sample schools, and the sample classes were selected based on these data. These data were used to calculate the weights. The 17th survey was conducted in a total of 800 schools, including 400 junior high schools and 400 senior high schools. The sampling frame for the sample design used national secondary school data as of April 2020, and the type of high school was divided into general and specialized high schools based on the classification of the sampling frame. Stratified cluster sampling was used, with schools as the primary sampling unit and classes as the secondary sampling unit. For the first sampling, the sample schools were selected by stratified permanent random number sampling. For the second sampling, one class per grade was randomly selected from the selected sample schools. All students in the lower grades selected as sample classes were surveyed, and students with long-term absenteeism, disabled children who could not participate in the survey on their own, and students with reading and writing disabilities were excluded from the sample.
2.2. Survey Methods
General characteristics included gender, grade, type of school, city size, economic level, grade, academic performance, frequency of consumption of sugary drinks in the past 7 days, perceived stress, father’s education, mother’s education, experience of personal hygiene education at school in the past 12 months, and gum pain and bleeding in the past 12 months, for a total of 13 questions. The oral hygiene item, represented by tooth brushing habits, consists of a dichotomous question about the frequency of tooth brushing after lunch: brushing or not brushing. The personal hygiene component, represented by hand washing practices, consists of a dichotomous question about the frequency of hand washing before eating at school. Family arrangements are defined as ‘two-parent households’ for those who answered ‘live with’ both mother and father in the original survey of caregivers, and ‘single-parent households’ for those who answered ‘live with’ one or the other.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
Complex sampling design analysis was performed to determine the distribution of study participants according to demographic characteristics. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine the association between hand washing and tooth brushing practices by general characteristics. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine the association between hand washing and tooth brushing practices by family type and general characteristics. Data were analyzed using SPSS 23.0 (IBM Co., Armonk, NY, USA), with a significance level of 0.05.
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of Subjects by Family Type
The general characteristics of the subjects by family type are shown in Table 1. Significant differences by family type were found for tooth brushing after lunch, hand washing before lunch, grade level, school type, city size, economic level, school grade, academic performance, perceived daily stress, parental education, and gum pain and bleeding in the past 12 months (p < 0.001).
3.2. Association between Tooth Brushing and Hand Washing Practices
Analyses of the association between post-lunch tooth brushing and pre-lunch hand washing are shown in Table 2. In all models, adolescents who engaged in post-lunch tooth brushing were more likely to engage in pre-lunch hand washing than those who did not, particularly in model 5, where adolescents who engaged in post-lunch tooth brushing were 2.09 times more likely to engage in pre-lunch hand washing than those who did not (p < 0.001), after adjustment for all variables.
3.3. Association between Tooth Brushing and Hand Washing Practices by Family Type
The results of the analyses of the association between tooth brushing and hand washing practices by family type are shown in Table 3. Regardless of the adjustment, we found that the association between tooth brushing and hand washing among adolescents in two-parent families was higher than the association between tooth brushing and hand washing among adolescents in single-parent families. Among adolescents in two-parent households, those who brushed their tooth after lunch were 2.39 times more likely to wash their hands before lunch than those who did not (p < 0.001), after adjusting for all variables. Among adolescents in close-knit families, those who practiced tooth brushing after lunch were 2.04 times more likely to practice hand washing before lunch than those who did not (p < 0.001), after adjusting for all variables. Thus, we found differences in the association between tooth brushing and handwashing practices based on family type.
4. Discussion
Our hypothesis is that adolescents who maintain healthy habits will also exhibit good hygiene behaviors and that these behaviors are interconnected. Thus, our study examined the relationship between hand washing and tooth brushing, which are representative hygiene behaviors. This study was conducted to determine the association between tooth brushing and hand washing and family type among adolescent’s nationwide using raw data from the 17th (2021) Youth Health Behavior Survey. We found that adolescents in two-parent households had higher hand washing and tooth brushing practices than those in single-parent households. Hand washing and tooth brushing practices were significantly associated with family type.
This study found that teenagers in two-parent households were more likely to brush their teeth after lunch and also more likely to wash their hands before lunch. Gum pain and bleeding were also higher in single-parent households than in dual-parent households. These findings suggest that parental presence is an important factor influencing the practice of personal hygiene behaviors among young children. Children’s oral health habits are influenced by their parents’ physical, emotional, and parenting styles, so it is important to educate parents about oral health care at home, as active oral health care education can help build oral health knowledge, oral health attitudes, and behaviors to maintain a healthy mouth and improve quality of life [13,14,15]. Previous studies of children’s dental care by family type have found that children living with single mothers are 63% more likely to have unmet medical needs than children living with married parents, and children living with cohabiting parents or parents and step-parents are also more likely to have unmet medical needs [16,17]. Parental education and household income levels have a significant impact on children’s oral health [18]. In Korea, the poverty rate for single-mother families is 44.5%, six times higher than the 7.5% for two-parent families, and the poverty rate for single-father families is 18.8%, 2.5 times higher than for two-parent families [19]. In addition, the poverty rate for single-parent families has increased in recent years due to the rise in divorce [20]. The impact of these family types on income levels is thought to affect not only the oral health of children but also their health.
The study also found that adolescents living with their parents were less likely to have received hygiene education at school. In single-parent families, the father or mother may spend less time with their children than parents in dual-earner families because they are juggling work and childcare. It has been found that cohabiting families face great difficulties in raising children in poor living conditions and hygiene [21]. Therefore, it is necessary to solve the problem of medical neglect faced by vulnerable people in Korea.
According to previous studies, oral factors were reported as the main target of COVID-19 [22,23,24]. According to the survey, poor oral health was confirmed worldwide, and it was implied that this was mainly caused by lack of self-care and had a direct impact on overall health. Additionally, as the oral cavity acts as a reservoir for SARS-CoV-2, many studies have been conducted to the effect that oral factors are involved in the pathophysiology of COVID-19 [25]. Therefore, the strategy of managing oral health through good oral hygiene habits can be a very effective strategy to protect your health from unpredictable pandemics such as SARS-CoV-2.
There are several limitations to this study. First, the study was designed as a cross-sectional study, which allowed us to identify associations between tooth brushing and hand washing based on family type, but it is difficult to establish a clear causal relationship between them in a cross-sectional study. Second, the study did not identify whether participants had received education on personal hygiene (tooth brushing and hand washing) from their parents or caregivers. A systematic follow-up study that reflects the adolescents’ experience of health education at home and their parents’ health knowledge and attitudes is needed. Third, although there are many different family types, the variables used in this study were limited to two-parent and single-parent families. It is necessary to analyze different family types by subdividing multicultural families and cohabiting families. Fourthly, the step-father, biological father, step-mother, and biological mother of the children surveyed in this study were considered to be the same family members. As step-fathers, fathers, step-mothers, and mothers may have different attitudes towards parenting, it is necessary to analyze this aspect.
However, despite these limitations, this study is of great importance because it was conducted on a large scale at the national level and used data from the Youth Health Behavior Survey, which is representative, and the results were significant. In addition, in recent years, Korean society has been restructuring families and creating different family types [26], and the number of cohabiting families with divorced and single mothers has increased, which has become a social problem [27,28,29]. In line with these changes, the significance of this study is that it met the family factors influencing adolescents’ hygiene behavior and examined the influence of family type on oral health. The results are significant because we were able to identify differences in the association between oral hygiene and personal hygiene practices between two-parent and single-parent families, and this is the first study in Korea to investigate the relationship between tooth brushing and hand washing practices according to family type. It is expected that this study will provide evidence for the development of policies to promote oral health among adolescents.
The finding of a significant association between family type and personal hygiene habits suggests that interventions to improve the oral health of children and adolescents are needed. Interventions to improve the oral health of children and adolescents require tailored strategies that reflect the characteristics of the child’s household. In particular, children and adolescents growing up in environments where parental care and supervision is relatively absent, such as single-parent households, need more active education and direct support from schools and governments.
5. Conclusions
Associations were found between tooth brushing and hand washing practices, and these associations were higher among adolescents in two-parent households than among adolescents in single-parent households. Future studies should continue to investigate the health risk factors of vulnerable groups, and policies should be formulated based on these findings.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, E.-J.K. and H.-J.L.; methodology, E.-J.K.; formal analysis, G.-W.K., E.-J.S., S.-J.L., Y.-S.L. and C.-R.L.; resources, H.-J.L.; data curation, E.-J.K., G.-W.K. and E.-J.S.; writing—original draft preparation, S.-J.L. and Y.-S.L.; writing—review and editing, C.-R.L. and H.-J.L.; supervision, H.-J.L. and E.-J.K.; project administration, H.-J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The data used in this study were from an online anonymous survey that did not collect any personal information of the participants. It was not approved by the institutional ethics committee but was a nationally approved statistical survey (No. 117058) that was approved by the state according to Article 18 of the Statistical Law of the Republic of Korea. All students who participated in the survey did so after giving informed consent.
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
References
- Kim, Y.R. Integrated Study on Factors related to Hand Washing Practice after COVID-19. J. Korea Converg. Soc. 2022, 13, 85–91. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, E.J.; Lee, H.J. Relationship between the Toothbrushing Behavior and Hand Hygiene Practices of Korean Adolescents: A Study Focused on the 15th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Survey Conducted in 2019. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choi, Y.S. Analysis of hand washing practice behavior of adolescents: Focusing on 2011–2013 online survey of youth health behavior. J. Korean Acad. Ind. Technol. 2014, 15, 4132–4138. [Google Scholar]
- Ministry of Health and Welfare. 2018 Child Oral Health Survey; Ministry of Health and Welfare: Sejong, Republic of Korea, 2018; pp. 17–24.
- Kim, S.W.; Cho, Y.G.; Kang, J.H.; Lee, S.H.; Lee, J.E.; Park, H.A.; Song, H.R.; Song, J.H. The relationships between parental lifestyle habits and children’s overweight. J. Korean Acad. Fam. Med. 2008, 29, 395–404. [Google Scholar]
- Park, N.H.; Lee, H.J. A critical review of health behavior studies of adolescents conducted in Korea. J. Korean Community Nurs. 2002, 13, 98–114. [Google Scholar]
- Casanova, L.M.; Weaver, S.R. Evaluation of eluents for the recovery of an enveloped virus from hands by whole-hand sampling. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2015, 118, 1210–1216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, M.O.; Lee, E.J. The effect of health-related characteristics and oral health-related characteristics on tooth decay. J. Soc. Health Med. Ind. 2018, 12, 101–112. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, D.G.; Yu, W.G. The Relationship between Oral Health Status and Subjective Oral Health Awareness in Korean Youth. J. Korean Soc. Dent. Hyg. 2015, 15, 593–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choi, H.N.; Lee, J.W.; Lee, S.M. The oral health status of the preschool child according to the oral health management behaviors performed by their parents. J. Korean Soc. Dent. Hyg. 2017, 17, 1225–1235. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, H.; Song, D.A. study on the factors affecting changes in subjective health condition among single parents—Focusing on family, economic, and social discrimination factors. Korean J. Fam. Soc. Work. 2019, 65, 43–65. [Google Scholar]
- Yoon, K.S.; Lee, Y.J. Analysis of Smoking, Drinking, and Mental Health by Gender among Adolescents from Single-Parent Families: Using Data from the 14th Online Youth Health Behavior Survey. J. Korea Acad.-Ind. Coop. Soc. 2021, 22, 709–718. [Google Scholar]
- Park, C.S.; Kang, E.J.; Song, J.Y.; Song, K.S. The influence on infant oral health care from mother’s experienceof oral health education. J. Korean Soc. Dent. Hyg. 2012, 12, 1183–1192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, Y.H.; Song, K.B.; Lee, S.K. Association between Oral Health Knowledge and Behavior in Mothers and Dental Heath Belief of their Children. J. Korean Soc. Sch. Health 2002, 15, 83–92. [Google Scholar]
- Chang, B.J. Relations between Mothers Oral Health Knowledge and Behavior and Their Children’s Oral Health Behavior. Korean Soc. Sch. Health 2006, 19, 49–57. [Google Scholar]
- Han, S.J.; Hwang, Y.S.; Yoo, J.S.; Kim, Y.S. A Study on Oral Health Awareness, Oral Health Behavior and DentalCaries among low Socio-Economic Status Children: The cases of localchildren’s center in Incheon. J. Dent. Hyg. Soc. 2008, 8, 147–153. [Google Scholar]
- Chon, J.E.; Choi, Y.H. Knowledge, attitude, and practice of dental health care in the teacher of local children center. J. Korean Soc. Dent. Hyg. 2012, 12, 4827–4837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, H.S.; Ahn, E.S.; Kim, M.Y.; Kim, S.M.; Shin, H.S. Trends of household income and dental care spending. J. Korean Acad. Oral. Health 2014, 38, 17–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sok, S.R.; Shin, S.H. Comparison of the Factors Influencing Children’s Self-esteem between Two Parent Families and Single Parent Families. J. Korean Acad. Nurs. 2010, 40, 367–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bang, S.Y.; Choi, S.H.; Lee, S.H.; Hwang, H.J. Impact of Psychological and Behavioral Variables of Parents from Low Income Families upon Children’s Problematic Behaviors: Comparison between Two-parent Families and Single-parent Familie. J. Korean Child. Care Educ. 2013, 9, 157–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, S.W.; Kim, Y.W. States and Implications of Policies for Single-parent Families. KIHSA 2012, 186, 59–69. [Google Scholar]
- Matuck, B.F.; Dolhnikoff, M.; Maia, G.V.A.; Sendyk, D.I.; Zarpellon, A.; Gomes, S.C.; Duarte-Neto, A.N.; Pinho, J.R.R.; Gomes-Gouvêa, M.S.; Sousa, S.C.M.; et al. Periodontal tissues are targets for SARS-CoV-2: A post-mortem study. J. Oral Microbiol. 2020, 13, 1848135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matuck, B.F.; Dolhnikoff, M.; Duarte-Neto, A.N.; Maia, G.; Gomes, S.C.; Sendyk, D.I.; Zarpellon, A.; de Andrade, N.P.; Monteiro, R.A.; Pinho, J.R.R.; et al. Salivary glands are a target for SARS-CoV-2: A source for saliva contamination. J. Pathol. 2021, 254, 239–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aida, J.; Fukai, K.; Watt, R.G. Global neglect of dental coverage in universal health coverage systems and Japan’s broad coverage. Int. Dent. J. 2021, 71, 454–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huang, N.; Pérez, P.; Kato, T.; Mikami, Y.; Okuda, K.; Gilmore, R.C.; Conde, C.D.; Gasmi, B.; Stein, S.; Beach, M.; et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection of the oral cavity and saliva. Nat. Med. 2021, 27, 892–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, S.Y. A Study on the Various Forms of the Family through the Movie <Birth of the Family>. Film. Lit. Ther. 2012, 7, 9–30. [Google Scholar]
- Shin, H.J.; Han, I.Y. Mediating Effects of the Functions of Parent’s Social Networks between Parent’s Socioeconomic Status and Parent Involvement: Comparison of Single-mother and Two-parent Families. Korean J. Woman Psychol. 2011, 16, 401–422. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, S.K. Changes in Korean Society and the Emergence of Diverse Forms of Family. Korea Inst. Health Soc. Aff. 2005, 103, 5–23. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, I.Y. Family Type Transition and Child Development. Korean Assoc. Appl. Econ. 2021, 23, 35–78. [Google Scholar]
Table 1.
General characteristics of subjects by family type.
| Variable | Family Type | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Living with Both Parents | Living with Single Parent | p-Value | ||
| Tooth brushing after lunch | Yes | 13,708 (48.2) | 1448 (40.8) | <0.001 |
| No | 21,005 (51.8) | 2040 (59.2) | ||
| Hand washing before lunch | Yes | 29,505 (84.7) | 2875 (81.9) | <0.001 |
| No | 5208 (15.3) | 613 (18.1) | ||
| Gender | Male | 16,672 (47.8) | 1629 (42.1) | 0.123 |
| Female | 18,041 (52.2) | 1859 (53.9) | ||
| Grade | Middle school, 1st grade | 7315 (19.8) | 636 (16.2) | <0.001 |
| Middle school, 2nd grade | 7025 (19.6) | 588 (15.7) | ||
| Middle school, 3rd grade | 6186 (16.3) | 653 (16.9) | ||
| High school, 1st grade | 5120 (15.0) | 561 (16.4) | ||
| High school, 2nd grade | 4876 (14.9) | 533 (16.8) | ||
| High school, 3rd grade | 4191 (14.4) | 517 (17.9) | ||
| School type | Coeducation | 23,754 (70.3) | 2284 (66.6) | <0.001 |
| All-boys schools | 4980 (13.0) | 516 (13.3) | ||
| All-girls schools | 5979 (16.7) | 688 (20.0) | ||
| Residence type | Rural area | 2467 (5.3) | 296 (5.5) | <0.001 |
| Metropolis | 15,079 (41.6) | 1453 (41.1) | ||
| City | 17,167 (53.1) | 1739 (52.5) | ||
| Income level | High | 3992 (11.5) | 198 (5.6) | <0.001 |
| Mid-high | 10,844 (32.0) | 654 (19.7) | ||
| Medium | 16,998 (48.4) | 1757 (50.1) | ||
| Mid-low | 2515 (7.0) | 726 (20.5) | ||
| Low | 364 (1.0) | 153 (4.0) | ||
| School level | General high schools (GHSs) | 12,001 (37.9) | 1174 (38.0) | <0.001 |
| Middle schools | 20,526 (55.8) | 1877 (48.9) | ||
| Specialized vocational high schools (SVHSs) | 2186 (6.3) | 437 (13.1) | ||
| Academic performance | High | 4830 (13.6) | 309 (8.3) | <0.001 |
| Mid-high | 9239 (26.5) | 722 (20.5) | ||
| Medium | 10,741 (31.1) | 1021 (29.5) | ||
| Mid-low | 7187 (20.9) | 936 (27.4) | ||
| Low | 2716 (7.9) | 500 (14.3) | ||
| Frequency of consumption of sweet drinks in the last 7 days | 0 times a week | 5450 (15.9) | 556 (16.5) | 0.178 |
| 1–2 times a week | 12,873 (36.7) | 1253 (35.2) | ||
| 3–4 times a week | 9301 (26.9) | 944 (27.4) | ||
| 5–6 times a week | 3571 (10.4) | 346 (10.2) | ||
| Once a day | 2158 (6.4) | 234 (6.5) | ||
| Twice a day | 847 (2.4) | 84 (2.3) | ||
| 3 times a day | 513 (1.4) | 71 (1.9) | ||
| Perceived stress | Very high | 3416 (9.9) | 459 (13.1) | <0.001 |
| High | 9496 (27.9) | 1086 (30.6) | ||
| Moderate | 14,957 (43.2) | 1359 (39.9) | ||
| low | 5569 (15.9) | 493 (13.7) | ||
| Very low | 1077 (3.0) | 91 (2.6) | ||
| Father’s education level | Lower than middle school | 418 (1.0) | 85 (2.2) | <0.001 |
| High school graduate | 7325 (20.4) | 870 (25.1) | ||
| College or university graduate or higher | 20,741 (61.9) | 1506 (44.9) | ||
| No response | 6229 (16.6) | 1027 (27.7) | ||
| Mother’s education level | Lower than middle school | 330 (0.9) | 66 (1.9) | <0.001 |
| High school graduate | 8463 (23.9) | 1020 (29.3) | ||
| College or university graduate or higher | 20,260 (60.1) | 1591 (47.3) | ||
| No response | 5660 (15.1) | 811 (21.5) | ||
| Hygiene education experience at school in the last 12 months | Yes | 19,275 (55.0) | 1882 (52.7) | 0.069 |
| No | 15,438 (45.0) | 1606 (47.3) | ||
| Gum pain and bleeding in the last 12 months | Yes | 6583 (19.2) | 770 (21.9) | <0.001 |
| No | 28,130 (80.8) | 2718 (78.1) | ||
Obtained by complex chi-square test. Bold values denotes statistical significance at p < 0.05.
Table 2.
Multivariable association between tooth brushing practice and hand washing practice.
| Independent Variable | Dependent Variable | Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | ||
| Tooth brushing practice | Hand washing practice (ref. no) | 1.57 (1.45–1.70) | 2.03 (1.88–2.18) | 2.08 (1.93–2.24) | 2.09 (1.93–2.25) | 2.09 (1.93–2.25) |
Model 1 was unadjusted association. Model 2 was adjusted for gender, grade, and school type. Model 3 was adjusted for all variables in model 2 and city size, economic level, and specialized school. Model 4 was adjusted for all variables in model 3 and academic performance, frequency of consumption of sweet drinks in the past 7 days, and perception of stress. Model 5 was adjusted for all variables in model 4 and parents’ level of education, personal hygiene education experience at school in the past 12 months, and gum pain and bleeding in the past 12 months. Bold values denotes statistical significance at p < 0.05.
Table 3.
Multivariable association between tooth brushing practice and hand washing practice according to family type.
Table 3.
Multivariable association between tooth brushing practice and hand washing practice according to family type.
| Independent Variable | Dependent Variable | Family Type | Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | |||
| Tooth brushing practice | Hand washing practice (ref. no) | Living with both parents | 1.79 (1.46–2.20) | 2.21 (1.80–2.71) | 2.33 (2.89–2.88) | 2.37 (1.93–2.98) | 2.39 (1.93–2.97) |
| Living with single parent | 1.54 (1.42–1.67) | 1.99 (1.84–2.16) | 2.04 (1.86–2.21) | 2.04 (1.89–2.22) | 2.04 (1.89–2.22) | ||
Model 1 was unadjusted association. Model 2 was adjusted for gender, grade, and school type. Model 3 was adjusted for all variables in model 2 and city size, economic level, and specialized school. Model 4 was adjusted for all variables in model 3 and academic performance, frequency of consumption of sweet drinks in the past 7 days, and perception of stress. Model 5 was adjusted for all variables in model 4 and parents’ level of education, personal hygiene education experience at school in the past 12 months, and gum pain and bleeding in the past 12 months. Bold values denotes statistical significance at p < 0.05.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
Kim, E.-J.; Ko, G.-W.; Seong, E.-J.; Lee, S.-J.; Lee, Y.-S.; Lee, C.-R.; Lee, H.-J. Relationship between Tooth Brushing and Hand Washing by Family Type among Adolescents: A 2020 Nationally Representative Korean Survey. Hygiene 2024, 4, 317-325. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene4030025
AMA Style
Kim E-J, Ko G-W, Seong E-J, Lee S-J, Lee Y-S, Lee C-R, Lee H-J. Relationship between Tooth Brushing and Hand Washing by Family Type among Adolescents: A 2020 Nationally Representative Korean Survey. Hygiene. 2024; 4(3):317-325. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene4030025
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Eun-Jeong, Gyeong-Won Ko, Eun-Ji Seong, Su-Jin Lee, Ye-Seo Lee, Chae-Rim Lee, and Hye-Ju Lee. 2024. "Relationship between Tooth Brushing and Hand Washing by Family Type among Adolescents: A 2020 Nationally Representative Korean Survey" Hygiene 4, no. 3: 317-325. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene4030025
