Proof. From left to right, we proceed by construction. So, suppose
is an arbitrary syllogism that is valid in
; then, we have to show that its corresponding diagram in
follows from
or an application of rules 1 to 6. Now, if
is valid in
, then, according to [
9], (a) the middle term of
is distributed (i.e., it is universal or negative) in at least one premise, (b) every term distributed in the conclusion of
is distributed in the premises of
, (c) the number of particular (resp. negative) premises of
is equal to the number of particular (resp. negative) conclusions of
, (d) the conclusion of
is not stronger than any premise of
(according to [
9], there is a transitivity or “strength” of modal operators in such a way that
implies
,
implies
,
implies
, and
implies
. So, a first statement (or term) is stronger than a second statement (or term) if and only if the first implies the second but not the other way around. The intuition is that a necessary condition for the validity of any inference is that the conclusion cannot exceed any premise in strength: the scholastics called this the
peiorem rule, namely,
peiorem semper sequiter conclusio partem), and (e) the number of
de dicto⋄ premises of
is not greater than the number of
de dicto⋄ conclusions of
.
Given conditions (a) to (d),
must be of one of the following
de re forms (
Table 4):
Now, let us model these syllogisms in
in order to obtain their respective diagrams (
Figure 7).
Notice that if conditions (a), (b), and (c) hold, the diagram of in , , looks exactly like the diagram of a valid syllogism in . Additionally, if condition (d) holds, then the order of the new de re rules also holds. Indeed, if condition (d) is met, then follows from ordered applications of rules 1, 2, 3, and 4. Condition (e) is trivial in this case because there are zero de dicto⋄ statements.
And that does it for the
de re syllogisms; now, given conditions (a) to (e),
must be of one of the following
de dicto forms (
Table 5):
Likewise, let us model these syllogisms in
in order to obtain their respective diagrams (
Figure 8).
Observe, then, that if conditions (a), (b), and (c) hold, the diagram of in , , looks exactly like the diagram of a valid syllogism in . If condition (d) holds, then follows from ordered applications of rules 1, 2, 3, and 4. And if condition (e) is met, then the number of a de dicto⋄ diagrams of is not greater than the number of de dicto⋄ conclusions.
Finally, if is a combination of valid de dicto and de re forms, then can be reduced to a de dicto form, since de re syllogisms can be reduced to assertoric syllogisms by collapsing the modal de re terms into simple, assertoric terms.
From right to left, we proceed by reductio. Thus, suppose an arbitrary diagram is valid in but its corresponding syllogism is invalid in . If is invalid in , then does not comply with at least one of the conditions (a) to (e). Now, if is valid in , it complies with or the modal rules 1 to 6. If complies with , then conditions (a) to (c) of must hold for . Indeed, if complies with , then the diagram of the middle term is between the diagrams of and , which implies that is distributed (which is condition (a)); the diagram of and is in the required position of the conclusion, so that every term distributed in the conclusion of is distributed in the premises of (which is condition (b)), and the number of intersections (resp. negated terms) in the diagram of the premises is equal to the number of intersections (resp. negated terms) in the diagram of the conclusion (which is condition (c)). And now, if rules 1 to 4 hold for , then must follow the order of strength of the modal operators, so that the conclusion of is not stronger than any premise of (which is condition (d)); finally, if follows from rules 5 or 6, then the number of de dicto⋄ premises of is not greater than the number of de dicto⋄ conclusions of (which is condition (e)). But then, if complies with or rules 1 to 6, follows conditions (a) to (e), and then is valid in , which contradicts our initial assumption. □