Suicide in the World
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
Cause of Death Population (000) | World | Africa | Americas | Eastern Mediterranean | Europe | South-East Asia | Western Pacific | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
6,737,480 | 804,865 | 915,430 | 580,208 | 889,170 | 1,760,486 | 1,787,321 | ||||||||
(000) | % total | (000) | % total | (000) | % total | (000) | % total | (000) | % total | (000) | % total | (000) | % total | |
Total Deaths | 56,888 | 100.0 | 10,125 | 100.0 | 6,170 | 100.0 | 4,198 | 100.0 | 9,223 | 100.0 | 14,498 | 100.0 | 12,674 | 100.0 |
Injuries | 5,129 | 9.0 | 687 | 6.8 | 594 | 9.6 | 445 | 10.6 | 664 | 7.2 | 1,552 | 10.7 | 1,187 | 9.4 |
Unintentional injuries | 3,619 | 6.4 | 445 | 4.4 | 355 | 5.8 | 293 | 7.0 | 487 | 5.3 | 1,132 | 7.8 | 908 | 7.2 |
Road traffic accidents | 1,209 | 2.1 | 168 | 1.7 | 148 | 2.4 | 124 | 3.0 | 108 | 1.2 | 309 | 2.1 | 351 | 2.8 |
Poisoning | 252 | 0.4 | 39 | 0.4 | 35 | 0.6 | 15 | 0.4 | 84 | 0.9 | 31 | 0.2 | 48 | 0.4 |
Falls | 510 | 0.9 | 19 | 0.2 | 48 | 0.8 | 24 | 0.6 | 66 | 0.7 | 211 | 1.5 | 142 | 1.1 |
Fires | 195 | 0.3 | 39 | 0.4 | 8 | 0.1 | 28 | 0.7 | 20 | 0.2 | 84 | 0.6 | 16 | 0.1 |
Drowning | 306 | 0.5 | 42 | 0.4 | 20 | 0.3 | 22 | 0.5 | 27 | 0.3 | 96 | 0.7 | 98 | 0.8 |
Other unintentional injuries | 1,146 | 2.0 | 136 | 1.3 | 96 | 1.6 | 79 | 1.9 | 181 | 2.0 | 401 | 2.8 | 252 | 2.0 |
Intentional injuries | 1,510 | 2.7 | 242 | 2.4 | 239 | 3.9 | 152 | 3.6 | 177 | 1.9 | 420 | 2.9 | 280 | 2.2 |
Self-inflicted–Suicide | 782 | 1.4 | 51 | 0.5 | 72 | 1.2 | 32 | 0.8 | 126 | 1.4 | 274 | 1.9 | 226 | 1.8 |
Violence | 535 | 0.9 | 162 | 1.6 | 157 | 2.5 | 22 | 0.5 | 46 | 0.5 | 102 | 0.7 | 47 | 0.4 |
War and civil conflict | 182 | 0.3 | 29 | 0.3 | 8 | 0.1 | 96 | 2.3 | 5 | 0.1 | 40 | 0.3 | 3 | 0.0 |
WHO region | 0–4 | 5–14 | 15–29 | 30–44 | 45–59 | 60–69 | 70–79 | 80+ | Total | Total, male and female |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males, number of suicides by age groups | ||||||||||
World | 0 | 5,961 | 136,532 | 128,196 | 117,916 | 52,222 | 43,984 | 21,676 | 506,487 | 782,014 |
Africa | 0 | 724 | 11,422 | 9,603 | 6,939 | 3,580 | 2,251 | 903 | 35,423 | 51,332 |
Americas | 0 | 571 | 15,171 | 15,127 | 13,936 | 5,309 | 3,478 | 2,635 | 56,227 | 72,064 |
Eastern Medit. | 0 | 548 | 6,753 | 4,585 | 2,787 | 981 | 896 | 681 | 17,230 | 32,334 |
Europe | 0 | 509 | 19,635 | 25,842 | 28,615 | 10,480 | 9,329 | 5,070 | 99,480 | 125,875 |
SE Asia | 0 | 2,502 | 64,548 | 49,869 | 33,048 | 9,965 | 6,776 | 2,052 | 168,761 | 274,445 |
Western Pacific | 0 | 1,107 | 19,002 | 23,170 | 32,590 | 21,907 | 21,254 | 10,335 | 129,366 | 225,965 |
Male suicide rate by age groups | ||||||||||
World | 0.0 | 0.9 | 15.3 | 17.8 | 23.4 | 28.2 | 42.2 | 60.1 | 14.9 | 11.6 |
Africa | 0.0 | 0.7 | 10.0 | 15.1 | 20.9 | 30.7 | 43.0 | 77.5 | 8.8 | 6.4 |
Americas | 0.0 | 0.7 | 13.4 | 15.9 | 18.9 | 18.9 | 22.2 | 34.1 | 12.4 | 7.9 |
Eastern Medit. | 0.0 | 0.8 | 7.6 | 8.1 | 8.8 | 9.5 | 17.0 | 44.7 | 5.8 | 5.6 |
Europe | 0.0 | 1.0 | 19.9 | 26.8 | 33.6 | 29.2 | 37.9 | 53.2 | 23.1 | 14.2 |
SE Asia | 0.0 | 1.4 | 25.6 | 26.8 | 27.5 | 25.6 | 35.8 | 40.4 | 18.8 | 15.6 |
Western Pacific | 0.0 | 0.8 | 8.5 | 10.4 | 20.4 | 36.5 | 61.6 | 93.5 | 14.1 | 12.6 |
Females, number of suicides by age groups | ||||||||||
World | 0 | 5,764 | 94,959 | 60,378 | 48,413 | 24,791 | 24,077 | 17,145 | 275,527 | |
Africa | 0 | 354 | 6,303 | 2,273 | 2,775 | 1,974 | 1,452 | 778 | 15,909 | |
Americas | 0 | 409 | 4,311 | 4,124 | 4,517 | 1,378 | 638 | 460 | 15,837 | |
Eastern Medit. | 0 | 555 | 8,124 | 3,443 | 1,776 | 410 | 444 | 353 | 15,104 | |
Europe | 0 | 203 | 4,001 | 5,228 | 7,017 | 3,464 | 3,559 | 2,924 | 26,395 | |
SE Asia | 0 | 3,413 | 59,109 | 23,793 | 10,378 | 5,284 | 2,635 | 1,070 | 105,683 | |
Western Pacific | 0 | 830 | 13,112 | 21,517 | 21,950 | 12,282 | 15,349 | 11,560 | 96,599 | |
Female suicide rate by age groups | Male-female rate ratio | |||||||||
World | 0.0 | 1.0 | 11.2 | 8.6 | 9.5 | 12.4 | 18.7 | 27.8 | 8.2 | 1.8 |
Africa | 0.0 | 0.3 | 5.5 | 3.6 | 7.7 | 14.7 | 22.3 | 44.5 | 3.9 | 2.2 |
Americas | 0.0 | 0.5 | 3.9 | 4.3 | 5.8 | 4.4 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 3.6 |
Eastern Medit. | 0.0 | 0.9 | 9.6 | 6.6 | 6.0 | 3.9 | 8.0 | 21.1 | 5.3 | 1.1 |
Europe | 0.0 | 0.4 | 4.2 | 5.4 | 7.7 | 8.1 | 9.9 | 14.0 | 5.8 | 4.0 |
SE Asia | 0.0 | 2.0 | 25.0 | 13.4 | 8.9 | 12.6 | 11.7 | 16.6 | 12.3 | 1.5 |
Western Pacific | 0.0 | 0.7 | 6.3 | 10.1 | 14.1 | 20.5 | 39.5 | 64.7 | 11.1 | 1.3 |
WHO Region | Country | Year | Suicide rate per 100,000 inhabitants | Number of suicides | Male-female rate ratio | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Total | |||||
Europe | Lithuania | 2009 | 61.3 | 10.4 | 34.1 | 1,138 | 5.9 |
Western Pacific | South Korea | 2009 | 39.9 | 22.1 | 31.0 | 15,413 | 1.8 |
SE Asia | Sri Lanka | 1991 | 44.6 | 16.8 | 31.0 | 5,347 | 2.7 |
Europe | Russian Federation | 2006 | 53.9 | 9.5 | 30.1 | 42,855 | 5.7 |
Europe | Belarus | 2007 | 48.7 | 8.8 | 27.4 | 2,663 | 5.5 |
Americas | Guyana | 2006 | 39.0 | 13.4 | 26.4 | 202 | 2.9 |
Europe | Kazakhstan | 2008 | 43.0 | 9.4 | 25.6 | 4,009 | 4.6 |
Europe | Hungary | 2009 | 40.0 | 10.6 | 24.6 | 2,461 | 3.8 |
Western Pacific | Japan | 2009 | 36.2 | 13.2 | 24.4 | 30,707 | 2.7 |
Europe | Latvia | 2009 | 40.0 | 8.2 | 22.9 | 516 | 4.9 |
Europe | Slovenia | 2009 | 34.6 | 9.4 | 21.9 | 447 | 3.7 |
Europe | Ukraine | 2009 | 37.8 | 7.0 | 21.2 | 9,716 | 5.4 |
Europe | Belgium | 2005 | 28.8 | 10.3 | 19.4 | 2,028 | 2.8 |
Europe | Finland | 2009 | 29.0 | 10.0 | 19.3 | 1,032 | 2.9 |
Europe | Serbia | 2009 | 28.1 | 10.0 | 18.8 | 1,376 | 2.8 |
Europe | Estonia | 2008 | 30.6 | 7.3 | 18.1 | 242 | 4.2 |
Europe | Switzerland | 2007 | 24.8 | 11.4 | 18.0 | 1,360 | 2.2 |
Europe | Croatia | 2009 | 28.9 | 7.5 | 17.8 | 790 | 3.9 |
Europe | Moldova | 2008 | 30.1 | 5.6 | 17.4 | 620 | 5.4 |
Europe | France | 2007 | 24.7 | 8.5 | 16.3 | 10,122 | 2.9 |
Americas | Uruguay | 2004 | 26.0 | 6.3 | 15.8 | 526 | 4.1 |
Europe | Austria | 2009 | 23.8 | 7.1 | 15.2 | 1,273 | 3.4 |
Europe | Poland | 2008 | 26.4 | 4.1 | 14.9 | 5,681 | 6.4 |
Western Pacific | Hong Kong | 2009 | 19.0 | 10.7 | 14.6 | 1,024 | 1.8 |
Americas | Suriname | 2005 | 23.9 | 4.8 | 14.4 | 72 | 5.0 |
Europe | Czech Republic | 2009 | 23.9 | 4.4 | 14.0 | 1,464 | 5.4 |
Western Pacific | China, selected areas (estimated total) | 1999 | 13.0 | 14.8 | 13.9 | 16,836(200,000) | 0.9 |
Europe | Sweden | 2008 | 18.7 | 6.8 | 12.7 | 1,170 | 2.8 |
Europe | Slovakia | 2005 | 22.3 | 3.4 | 12.6 | 679 | 6.6 |
Americas | Cuba | 2008 | 19.0 | 5.5 | 12.3 | 1,376 | 3.5 |
Europe | Bulgaria | 2008 | 18.8 | 6.2 | 12.3 | 939 | 3.0 |
Europe | Romania | 2009 | 21.0 | 3.5 | 12.0 | 2,286 | 6.0 |
Europe | Norway | 2009 | 17.3 | 6.5 | 11.9 | 573 | 2.7 |
Europe | Iceland | 2008 | 16.5 | 7.0 | 11.9 | 38 | 2.4 |
Europe | Denmark | 2006 | 17.5 | 6.4 | 11.9 | 647 | 2.7 |
Europe | Germany | 2006 | 17.9 | 6.0 | 11.9 | 9,765 | 3.0 |
Europe | Ireland | 2009 | 19.0 | 4.7 | 11.8 | 527 | 4.0 |
Europe | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1991 | 20.3 | 3.3 | 11.8 | 531 | 6.2 |
Western Pacific | New Zealand | 2007 | 18.1 | 5.5 | 11.7 | 493 | 3.3 |
Americas | Canada | 2004 | 17.3 | 5.4 | 11.3 | 3,613 | 3.2 |
Americas | Chile | 2007 | 18.2 | 4.2 | 11.1 | 1,848 | 4.3 |
Americas | United States of America | 2005 | 17.7 | 4.5 | 11.0 | 32,559 | 3.9 |
Americas | Trinidad and Tobago | 2006 | 17.9 | 3.8 | 10.7 | 141 | 4.7 |
SE Asia | India | 2009 | 13.0 | 7.8 | 10.5 | 127,151 | 1.7 |
Western Pacific | Singapore | 2006 | 12.9 | 7.7 | 10.3 | 372 | 1.7 |
Europe | Portugal | 2009 | 15.6 | 4.0 | 9.6 | 1,025 | 3.9 |
Europe | Luxembourg | 2008 | 16.1 | 3.2 | 9.6 | 47 | 5.0 |
Europe | Netherlands | 2009 | 13.1 | 5.5 | 9.3 | 1,525 | 2.4 |
Europe | Kyrgyzstan | 2009 | 14.1 | 3.6 | 8.8 | 458 | 3.9 |
Europe | Turkmenistan | 1998 | 13.8 | 3.5 | 8.6 | 406 | 3.9 |
Western Pacific | Australia | 2006 | 12.8 | 3.6 | 8.2 | 1,673 | 3.6 |
Americas | El Salvador | 2008 | 12.9 | 3.6 | 8.0 | 490 | 3.6 |
Africa | Zimbabwe | 1990 | 10.6 | 5.2 | 7.9 | 768 | 2.0 |
SE Asia | Thailand | 2002 | 12.0 | 3.8 | 7.8 | 4,905 | 3.2 |
Americas | Argentina | 2008 | 12.6 | 3.0 | 7.7 | 3,068 | 4.2 |
Europe | Spain | 2008 | 11.9 | 3.4 | 7.6 | 3,457 | 3.5 |
Americas | Puerto Rico | 2005 | 13.2 | 2.0 | 7.4 | 288 | 6.6 |
Americas | Ecuador | 2009 | 10.5 | 3.6 | 7.1 | 965 | 2.9 |
Europe | United Kingdom | 2009 | 10.9 | 3.0 | 6.9 | 4,245 | 3.6 |
Africa | Mauritius | 2008 | 11.8 | 1.9 | 6.8 | 84 | 6.2 |
Europe | Macedonia | 2003 | 9.5 | 4.0 | 6.8 | 137 | 2.4 |
Europe | Italy | 2007 | 10.0 | 2.8 | 6.3 | 3,757 | 3.6 |
Americas | Costa Rica | 2009 | 10.2 | 1.9 | 6.1 | 280 | 5.4 |
Americas | Nicaragua | 2006 | 9.0 | 2.6 | 5.8 | 319 | 3.5 |
Americas | Panama | 2008 | 9.0 | 1.9 | 5.5 | 186 | 4.7 |
Americas | Colombia | 2007 | 7.9 | 2.0 | 4.9 | 2,191 | 4.0 |
Americas | Brazil | 2008 | 7.7 | 2.0 | 4.8 | 9,206 | 3.9 |
Europe | Uzbekistan | 2005 | 7.0 | 2.3 | 4.7 | 1,221 | 3.0 |
Africa | Seychelles | 2008 | 8.9 | 0.0 | 4.6 | 4 | N/A |
Europe | Cyprus | 2008 | 7.4 | 1.7 | 4.5 | 36 | 4.4 |
Europe | Georgia | 2009 | 7.1 | 1.7 | 4.3 | 188 | 4.2 |
Europe | Israel | 2007 | 7.0 | 1.5 | 4.3 | 306 | 4.7 |
Americas | Mexico | 2008 | 7.0 | 1.5 | 4.2 | 4,565 | 4.7 |
Europe | Albania | 2003 | 4.7 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 124 | 1.4 |
Eastern Medit. | Bahrain | 2006 | 4.0 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 28 | 1.1 |
Americas | Belize | 2008 | 6.6 | 0.7 | 3.7 | 11 | 9.4 |
Americas | St.Vincent & Grenadines | 2008 | 5.4 | 1.9 | 3.7 | 4 | 2.8 |
Americas | Guatemala | 2008 | 5.6 | 1.7 | 3.6 | 492 | 3.3 |
Americas | Paraguay | 2008 | 5.1 | 2.0 | 3.6 | 222 | 2.6 |
Europe | Greece | 2009 | 6.0 | 1.0 | 3.5 | 391 | 6.0 |
Americas | Barbados | 2006 | 7.3 | 0.0 | 3.5 | 9 | N/A |
Europe | Malta | 2008 | 5.9 | 1.0 | 3.4 | 14 | 5.9 |
Americas | Venezuela | 2007 | 5.3 | 1.2 | 3.2 | 896 | 4.4 |
Europe | Tajikistan | 2001 | 2.9 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 163 | 1.3 |
Americas | Saint Lucia | 2005 | 4.9 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 4 | N/A |
Americas | Dominican Republic | 2005 | 3.9 | 0.7 | 2.3 | 220 | 5.6 |
Western Pacific | Philippines | 1993 | 2.5 | 1.7 | 2.1 | 848 | 1.5 |
Europe | Armenia | 2008 | 2.8 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 63 | 2.5 |
Eastern Medit. | Kuwait | 2009 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 62 | 1.1 |
Americas | Peru | 2007 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 407 | 1.9 |
Americas | Bahamas | 2005 | 1.9 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 4 | 3.2 |
Africa | South Africa | 2007 | 1.4 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 420 | 3.5 |
Africa | Sao Tome and Principe | 1987 | 0.0 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 1 | 0.0 |
Europe | Azerbaijan | 2007 | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 55 | 3.3 |
SE Asia | Maldives | 2005 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 1 | N/A |
Eastern Medit. | Iran | 1991 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 111 | 3.0 |
Eastern Medit. | Egypt | 2009 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 52 | N/A |
Eastern Medit. | Jordan | 2008 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 6 | N/A |
Americas | Jamaica | 1990 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 3 | N/A |
Eastern Medit. | Syria | 1985 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 10 | N/A |
Americas | Grenada | 2008 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0 | N/A |
Americas | Haiti | 2003 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2 | N/A |
Americas | Antigua and Barbuda | 1995 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0 | N/A |
Americas | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 1995 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0 | N/A |
Americas | Honduras | 1978 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0 | N/A |
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Reference
- Diekstra, R.F. Suicide and the attempted suicide: An Interntional perspective. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1989, 80, 1–24. [Google Scholar]
- Schmidtke, A.; Weinacker, B.; Apter, A.; Batt, A.; Berman, A.; Bille-Brahe, U.; Botsis, A.; de Leo, D.; Doneux, A.; Goldney, R. Suicide rates in the world: Update. Arch. Suicide Res. 1999, 5, 81–89. [Google Scholar]
- Bertolote, J.M.; Fleischmann, A. Suicide and psychiatric diagnosis: A worldwide perspective. World Psychiatry 2002, 1, 181–185. [Google Scholar]
- Bertolote, J.M.; Fleischmann, A. A Global Perspective on the Magnitude of Suicide Mortality. In Oxford Textbook of Suicidology and Suicide Prevention; Wasserman, D., Wasserman, C., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2009; pp. 91–98. [Google Scholar]
- Reza, A.; Mercy, J.A.; Krug, E. Epidemiology of violent deaths in the world. Inj. Prev. 2001, 7, 104–111. [Google Scholar]
- Krug, E.G.; Mercy, J.A.; Dahlberg, L.L.; Zwi, A.B. The world report on violence and health. Lancet 2002, 360, 1083–1088. [Google Scholar]
- Rao, C.; Lopez, A.D.; Yang, G.; Begg, S.; Ma, J. Evaluating national cause-of-death statistics: Principles and application to the case of China. Bull. World Health Organ. 2005, 83, 618–625. [Google Scholar]
- Mathers, C.D.; Ma Fat, D.; Inoue, M.; Rao, C.; Lopez, A.D. Counting the dead and what they died from: An assessment of the global status of cause of death data. Bull. World Health Organ. 2005, 83, 171c–177c. [Google Scholar]
- Causes of Death 2008: Data Sources and Methods; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. Available online: http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/cod_2008_sources_methods.pdf (accessed on 12 February 2012).
- Suicide Rates per 100,000 by Country, Year and Sex (Table); WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. Available online: http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide_rates/en/index.html (accessed on 12 February 2012).
- Country Reports and Charts Available; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. Available online: http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/country_reports/en/index.html (accessed on 12 February 2012).
- WHO. Causes of Death 2008: Data Sources and Methods; Department of Health Statistics and Informatics, World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. Available online: http://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/global_burden_disease_DTH6_2008.xls (accessed on 12 February 2012).
- Ajdacic-Gross, V.; Bopp, M.; Gostynski, M.; Lauber, C.; Gutzwiller, F.; RÖssler, W. Age-period-cohort analysis of Swiss suicide data, 1881–2000. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2006, 256, 207–214. [Google Scholar]
- Ratnayeke, L. Suicide in Sri Lanka. In Suicide Prevention: The Global Context; Kosky, R.J., Eshkevari, H.S., Goldney, R.D., Hassan, R.E., Eds.; Plenum Press: New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 139–142. [Google Scholar]
- Kwon, J.W.; Chun, H.; Cho, S. A closer look at the increase in suicide rates in South Korea from 1986–2005. BMC Public Health 2009, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gunnell, D.; Fernando, R.; Hewagama, M.; Priyangika, W.D.D.; Konradsen, F.; Eddleston, M. The impact of pesticide regulations on suicide in Sri Lanka. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 36, 1235–1242. [Google Scholar]
- Pearson, M.; Zwi, A.B.; Buckley, N.A. Research prospective policy analysis: How an epistemic community informed policymaking on intentional self poisoning in Sri Lanka. Health Res. Policy Syst. 2010, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vijayakumar, L. Suicide prevention: The urgent need in developing countries. World Psychiatry 2004, 3, 158–159. [Google Scholar]
- Law, S.; Liu, P. Suicide in China: Unique demographic patterns and relationship to depressive disorder. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2008, 10, 80–86. [Google Scholar]
- Phillips, M.R.; Li, X.; Zhang, Y. Suicide rates in China, 1995–1999. Lancet 2002, 359, 835–840. [Google Scholar]
© 2012 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Värnik, P. Suicide in the World. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 760-771. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030760
Värnik P. Suicide in the World. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012; 9(3):760-771. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030760
Chicago/Turabian StyleVärnik, Peeter. 2012. "Suicide in the World" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9, no. 3: 760-771. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030760
APA StyleVärnik, P. (2012). Suicide in the World. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(3), 760-771. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030760