Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins—A Serious Problem for Human Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Aflatoxins
3. Ochratoxin A
4. T-2 Toxin
5. Deoxynivalenol
6. Patulin
7. Zearalenone
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreaviations
α-ZOL | α-zearalenol |
β-ZOL | β-zearalenol |
AFB1 | Aflatoxin B1 |
AFB2 | Aflatoxin B2 |
AFG1 | Aflatoxin G1 |
AFG2 | Aflatoxin G2 |
AFM1 | Aflatoxin M1 |
AFP1 | Aflatoxin P1 |
AFQ1 | Aflatoxin Q1 |
AST | Aspartate transaminase |
ATA | Alimentary toxic aleukia |
BBB | Blood-brain barrier |
CYP450 | Cytochrome P450 |
DON | Deoxynivalenol |
EC | European Commission |
ER | Endoplasmic reticulum |
EU | European Union |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
FDA | Food and Drug Administration |
FHB | Fusarium head blight |
GLAST | Glutamate aspartate transporter |
GLT1 | Glutamate transporter 1 |
GSH | Glutathione |
HBV | Hepatitis B virus |
HCC | Hepatocellular carcinoma |
IARC | International Agency for Research on Cancer |
JECFA | Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives |
JNK | C-jun amino-terminal-kinase |
KBD | Kashin–Beck disease |
MAPK | Mitogen-activated protein kinases |
MDA | Malondialdehyde |
MFO | Microsomal-mixed function oxidase |
MMP-9 | Matrix metallopeptidase 9 |
OTA | Ochratoxin A |
OTB | Ochratoxin B |
OTC | Ochratoxin C |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
TDI | Tolerable daily intake |
TJP | Tight junction proteins |
UDPGT | Uridine diphosphate glucuronyl transferases |
WHO | World Health Organization |
ZEA | Zearalenone |
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Mycotoxin | Mould Species | Food Commodity | Pathological Effects | Regulation Levels in Food | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aflatoxins | Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. nomius | Wheat, walnut, maize, cotton, peanuts, maize, eggs, milk, meat | Hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity | European Union (EU): 2 μg/kg (cereals, all cereal derived products) Food and Drug Administration (FDA): 20 μg/kg (dairy animal feed) China: 5 μg/kg (barley, wheat) 20 μg/kg (corn and corn products) | [21,22,23,24,25] |
Ochratoxin A | Aspergillus ochraceus, A. carbonarius, Penicillium verrucosum, P. nordicum | Coffee beans, oats, wheat, maize, wine, dried fruits, spices, eggs, meat | Nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity, teratogenicity, immunotoxicity neurotoxicity | EU: 3 μg/kg (cereal products), 5 μg/kg (unprocessed cereal), 10 μg/kg (dried fruits), 15 μg/kg (spices) European Commission (EC): 5 ng/kg (coffee beans), 10 ng/kg (instant coffee), 0.5 μg/kg (cereal-based food) 2 μg/kg (wines) Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA): 0.1 μg/kg b. w. per week | [26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35] |
T-2 toxin | Fusarium sporotrichoides, F. poae, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti | Barley, oats, wheat | Dermal toxicity, immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity | EU: 100 ng/kg body weight per day | [36,37,38,39,40] |
Deoxynivalenol | Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum | Wheat, maize | Immunotoxicity, reproductive system toxicity, genotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, neurotoxicity | JECFA: 1 μg/kg b. w. per day | [41,42,43,44,45,46] |
Patulin | Penicillium expansum, P. carneum, P. coprobium, Aspergillus clavatus, A. giganteus, Byssochlamys nivea, Paecilomyces saturatus | Apples, grapes, plums, peaches, pears, tomatoes | Hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, teratogenicity, neurotoxicity | World Health Organization (WHO): 50 μg/kg (apples), 50 μg/L (apple juice), and 10 μg/L (young children and infants apple-based food) | [47,48,49,50,51] |
Zearalenone | Fusarium graminearum, F. cerealis, F. CulmorumF. equiseti | Maize, barley, oats, sorghum and wheat | Reproductive system disorders, hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, | JECFA: 0.5 μg/kg body weight | [52,53,54,55] |
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Janik, E.; Niemcewicz, M.; Ceremuga, M.; Stela, M.; Saluk-Bijak, J.; Siadkowski, A.; Bijak, M. Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins—A Serious Problem for Human Health. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 8187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218187
Janik E, Niemcewicz M, Ceremuga M, Stela M, Saluk-Bijak J, Siadkowski A, Bijak M. Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins—A Serious Problem for Human Health. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(21):8187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218187
Chicago/Turabian StyleJanik, Edyta, Marcin Niemcewicz, Michal Ceremuga, Maksymilian Stela, Joanna Saluk-Bijak, Adrian Siadkowski, and Michal Bijak. 2020. "Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins—A Serious Problem for Human Health" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 21: 8187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218187
APA StyleJanik, E., Niemcewicz, M., Ceremuga, M., Stela, M., Saluk-Bijak, J., Siadkowski, A., & Bijak, M. (2020). Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins—A Serious Problem for Human Health. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(21), 8187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218187