Primary and Secondary Health Impacts of COVID-19 among Minority Individuals in New York State
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Selection of Participants
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Measures
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Social Determinant of Health | Measures |
---|---|
Direct COVID-19 impact | Test positive, quarantine, hospitalized, died from COVID-19 for self, family/friends; depression, anxiety |
Economic stability | Income, reduced work, concern about job security, concern about housing, concern about debt, concern about food security |
Education | Concerns about schooling |
Healthcare | Concern about healthcare access, health insurance |
Neighborhood and built environment | Standing too close for safety when getting food, going to bars/restaurants, making fewer grocery trips, more access to public transportation |
Social and community context | Perceptions of response (city, federal, public health, state government, communications) |
Characteristic | Frequency | Percent |
---|---|---|
Age | ||
18–24 | 128 | 30.8 |
25–34 | 80 | 19.3 |
35–44 | 75 | 18.1 |
45–54 | 49 | 11.8 |
55–64 | 39 | 9.4 |
65+ | 44 | 10.6 |
Gender | ||
Female | 230 | 55.4 |
Male | 180 | 43.4 |
Other | 5 | 1.2 |
Race/Ethnicity | ||
Non-Hispanic white | 82 | 20.6 |
Black or African American | 126 | 31.6 |
Hispanic | 162 | 40.6 |
Other, multirace | 29 | 7.3 |
Income | ||
<USD 12,999 | 74 | 17.8 |
USD 13,000–24,999 | 74 | 17.8 |
USD 25,000–49,999 | 106 | 25.5 |
USD 50,000–74,999 | 63 | 15.2 |
>USD 75,000 | 98 | 23.6 |
Employment Before COVID-19 | ||
Employed, salaried, full-time | 98 | 23.6 |
Employed, hourly, full-time | 81 | 19.5 |
Employed, salaried, part-time | 29 | 7.0 |
Employed, hourly, part-time | 40 | 9.6 |
Disabled | 27 | 6.5 |
Retired | 41 | 9.9 |
Homemaker | 19 | 4.6 |
Student | 32 | 7.7 |
Unemployed | 48 | 11.6 |
Education | ||
Some high school | 20 | 4.8 |
High school graduate or GED | 111 | 26.8 |
Some college | 97 | 23.4 |
Associates degree or technical school | 61 | 14.7 |
Bachelor’s degree | 90 | 21.7 |
Postgraduate degree | 36 | 8.7 |
Row Percentages Reported | Non-Hispanic White | Black or African-American | Hispanic | Other, Multirace | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |
Direct Impacts | ||||||||
Direct COVID-19 Impact—Self | 11 | 14.3 | 31 | 40.3 | 29 | 37.7 | 6 | 7.8 |
Direct COVID-19 Impact—Family/Friend *** | 32 | 13.0 | 87 | 35.4 | 110 | 44.7 | 17 | 6.9 |
Likely Generalized Anxiety Disorder * | 26 | 16.7 | 44 | 28.2 | 77 | 49.4 | 9 | 5.8 |
Likely Major Depressive Disorder | 29 | 17.5 | 53 | 31.9 | 74 | 44.6 | 10 | 6.0 |
Economic Stability | ||||||||
Income ** | ||||||||
<USD 25,000 | 15 | 10.8 | 51 | 36.7 | 63 | 45.3 | 10 | 7.2 |
USD 25,000–50,000 | 19 | 18.3 | 34 | 32.7 | 38 | 36.5 | 13 | 12.5 |
>USD 50,000 | 48 | 30.8 | 41 | 26.3 | 61 | 39.1 | 6 | 3.9 |
Reduced work * | 21 | 13.2 | 48 | 30.2 | 77 | 48.4 | 13 | 8.2 |
Concerns about job security *** | 36 | 14.1 | 84 | 32.9 | 113 | 44.3 | 22 | 8.6 |
Concerns about paying rent/mortgage *** | 31 | 12.4 | 81 | 32.4 | 114 | 45.6 | 24 | 9.6 |
Concerns about debt ** | 41 | 16.1 | 78 | 30.6 | 116 | 45.5 | 20 | 7.8 |
Risk of food insecurity since COVID-19 ** | 23 | 13.7 | 53 | 31.6 | 78 | 46.4 | 14 | 8.3 |
Education | ||||||||
Concerns about schooling ** | 26 | 12.9 | 66 | 32.7 | 92 | 45.5 | 18 | 8.9 |
Healthcare | ||||||||
Concerns about healthcare access ** | 44 | 16.8 | 78 | 29.8 | 113 | 43.1 | 27 | 10.3 |
Health insurance | 75 | 21.3 | 113 | 32.0 | 143 | 40.5 | 22 | 6.2 |
Neighborhood and Built Environment | ||||||||
Standing too close when shopping | 46 | 19.3 | 74 | 31.1 | 99 | 41.6 | 19 | 8.0 |
Going to restaurants less during COVID-19 | 49 | 19.7 | 72 | 28.9 | 108 | 43.4 | 20 | 8.0 |
Making fewer grocery trips during COVID-19 * | 56 | 17.6 | 100 | 31.5 | 135 | 42.5 | 27 | 8.5 |
More access to public transit would be helpful | 11 | 11.7 | 34 | 36.2 | 42 | 44.7 | 7 | 7.5 |
Social and Community Context | ||||||||
City response effective | 52 | 22.1 | 79 | 33.6 | 88 | 37.5 | 16 | 6.8 |
Communication about COVID-19 effective | 59 | 21.8 | 92 | 34.0 | 101 | 37.3 | 19 | 7.0 |
Federal response effective | 47 | 24.9 | 51 | 27.0 | 78 | 41.3 | 13 | 6.9 |
Public health response effective | 51 | 21.2 | 79 | 32.8 | 95 | 39.4 | 16 | 6.6 |
State response effective | 57 | 21.2 | 93 | 34.6 | 102 | 37.9 | 17 | 6.3 |
COVID-19 Impacts | Non-Hispanic White | Black, African American | Hispanic | Other, Multirace | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | ||
Direct Impacts | |||||||
Direct COVID-19 Impact—Family/Friend *** | ref | 3.5 | 1.95, 6.24 | 3.3 | 1.90, 5.75 | 2.2 | 0.93, 5.24 |
Likely Generalized Anxiety Disorder * | ref | 1.2 | 0.64, 2.09 | 2.0 | 1.12, 3.41 | 1.0 | 0.39, 2.42 |
Economic Stability | |||||||
Income ** | ref | 0.3 | 0.17, 0.64 | 0.4 | 0.18, 0.67 | 0.4 | 0.16, 1.10 |
Reduced work ** | ref | 1.8 | 0.97, 3.30 | 2.6 | 1.47, 4.72 | 2.4 | 0.98, 5.71 |
Concerns about job security *** | ref | 2.6 | 1.44, 4.53 | 3.0 | 1.70, 5.11 | 4.0 | 1.54, 10.44 |
Concerns about paying rent/mortgage *** | ref | 3.0 | 1.66, 5.27 | 3.9 | 2.23, 6.84 | 7.9 | 2.73, 22.84 |
Concerns about debt ** | ref | 1.6 | 0.93, 2.85 | 2.5 | 1.45, 4.38 | 2.2 | 0.91, 5.45 |
Risk of food insecurity since COVID-19 ** | ref | 2.4 | 1.28, 4.48 | 3.0 | 1.65, 5.42 | 3.5 | 1.33, 9.28 |
Education | |||||||
Concerns about schooling ** | ref | 2.4 | 1.32, 4.24 | 2.8 | 1.62, 4.95 | 3.5 | 1.46, 8.52 |
Healthcare | |||||||
Concerns about healthcare access *** | ref | 1.4 | 0.80, 2.47 | 2.0 | 1.15, 3.45 | 11.7 | 2.60, 52.28 |
Neighborhood and Built Environment | |||||||
Making fewer grocery trips during COVID-19 * | ref | 1.8 | 0.95, 3.37 | 2.3 | 1.25, 4.32 | 6.3 | 1.38, 28.37 |
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Clay, L.A.; Rogus, S. Primary and Secondary Health Impacts of COVID-19 among Minority Individuals in New York State. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020683
Clay LA, Rogus S. Primary and Secondary Health Impacts of COVID-19 among Minority Individuals in New York State. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(2):683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020683
Chicago/Turabian StyleClay, Lauren A., and Stephanie Rogus. 2021. "Primary and Secondary Health Impacts of COVID-19 among Minority Individuals in New York State" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 2: 683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020683