A Narrative Review on the Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Therapeutic Potentials of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Leaves as an Alternative Source of Future Medicine
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Phytochemistry C. nutans
3. Pharmacological and Medicinal Properties
3.1. Antioxidant and Anti-Cancer Properties
3.2. Anti-Viral Properties
3.3. Anti-Bacterial Properties
3.4. Anti-Fungal Properties
3.5. Anti-Venom Properties
3.6. Analgesic and Anti-Nociceptive Properties
3.7. Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Properties
3.8. Anti-Hyperglycemic Properties
3.9. Anti-Hyperlipidemia Properties
3.10. Vasorelaxation Properties
3.11. Renoprotective Properties
3.12. Toxicology Studies
4. Conclusions and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bernardini, S.; Tiezzi, A.; Laghezza Masci, V.; Ovidi, E. Natural products for human health: An historical overview of the drug discovery approaches. Nat. Prod. Res. 2018, 32, 1926–1950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beyene, B.; Beyene, B.; Deribe, H. Review on application and management of medicinal plants for the livelihood of the local community. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2016, 22, 33–39. [Google Scholar]
- Haida, Z.; Hakiman, M. A review of therapeutic potentials of Clinacanthus nutans as source for alternative medicines. Sains Malaysiana 2019, 48, 2683–2691. [Google Scholar]
- Mat Yusuf, S.N.A.; Che Mood, C.N.A.; Ahmad, N.H.; Sandai, D.; Lee, C.K.; Lim, V. Optimization of biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles from flavonoid-rich Clinacanthus nutans leaf and stem aqueous extracts. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2020, 7, 200065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aslam, M.S.; Ahmad, M.S.; Mamat, A.S. A review on phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Clinacanthus nutans. Int. J. Pharm. 2015, 7, 4. [Google Scholar]
- Quattrocchi, U. Clinacanthus Nees Acanthaceae.“ CRC World Dict Med. Poisonous Plants Common Names, Sci Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, Etymology, 1st ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Kuo, X.; Herr, D.R.; Ong, W.-Y. Anti-inflammatory and Cytoprotective Effect of Clinacanthus nutans Leaf But Not Stem Extracts on 7-Ketocholesterol Induced Brain Endothelial Cell Injury. Neuromolecular Med. 2021, 23, 176–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kosai, P.; Sirisidthi, K.; Jiraungkoorskul, W. Evaluation of total phenolic compound and cytotoxic activity of Clinacanthus nutans. Indian, J. Pharm. Sci. 2016, 78, 283–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Andasari, S.D.; Mustofa, C.H. Standarisasi Spesifik Dan Non Spesifik Ekstrak Etil Asetat Daun Dandang Gendis (Clinacanthus Nutans). MOTORIK Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan 2020, 15, 70–75. [Google Scholar]
- Zulkipli, I.N.; Rajabalaya, R.; Idris, A.; Sulaiman, N.A.; David, S.R. Clinacanthus nutans: A review on ethnomedicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmacological properties. Pharm. Biol. 2017, 55, 1093–1113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ch’ng, Y.S.; Tan, C.S.; Loh, Y.C.; Ahmad, M.; Asmawi, M.Z.; Yam, M.F. Vasorelaxation study and tri-step infrared spectroscopy analysis of Malaysian local herbs. J. Pharmacopuncture. 2016, 19, 145. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Yahaya, R.; Dash, G.K.; Abdullah, M.S.; Mathews, A. Clinacanthus nutans (burm. F.) Lindau: An useful medicinal plant of south-east Asia. Int. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2015, 7, 1244–1250. [Google Scholar]
- Kobun, R. Recent methods for extraction and identification of Clinacanthus Nutans. Biology 2019, 1–25. [Google Scholar]
- Sulaiman, I.S.C.; Basri, M.; Masoumi, H.R.F.; Chee, W.J.; Ashari, S.E.; Ismail, M. Effects of temperature, time, and solvent ratio on the extraction of phenolic compounds and the anti-radical activity of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau leaves by response surface methodology. Chem. Cent. J. 2017, 11, 017–0285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abdul Rahim, M.H.; Zakaria, Z.A.; Mohd Sani, M.H.; Omar, M.H.; Yakob, Y.; Cheema, M.S.; Ching, S.M.; Ahmad, Z.; Abdul Kadir, A. Methanolic Extract of Clinacanthus nutans Exerts Antinociceptive Activity via the Opioid/Nitric Oxide-Mediated, but cGMP-Independent, Pathways. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2016, 2016, 1494981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sarega, N.; Imam, M.U.; Ooi, D.J.; Chan, K.W.; Md Esa, N.; Zawawi, N.; Ismail, M. Phenolic Rich Extract from Clinacanthus nutans Attenuates Hyperlipidemia-Associated Oxidative Stress in Rats. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2016, 2016, 4137908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Huang, D.; Guo, W.; Gao, J.; Chen, J.; Olatunji, J.O. Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Ethanol Extract Inhibits Hepatoma in Mice through Upregulation of the Immune Response. Molecules 2015, 20, 17405–17428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Khoo, L.W.; Mediani, A.; Zolkeflee, N.K.Z.; Leong, S.W.; Ismail, I.S.; Khatib, A.; Shaari, K.; Abas, F. Phytochemical diversity of Clinacanthus nutans extracts and their bioactivity correlations elucidated by NMR based metabolomics. Phytochem. Lett. 2015, 14, 123–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mutazah, R.; Abd Hamid, H.; Ramli, A.N.M.; Aluwi, M.F.F.M.; Yusoff, M.M. In vitro cytotoxicity of Clinacanthus nutans fractions on breast cancer cells and molecular docking study of sulphur containing compounds against caspase-3. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2020, 135, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yeo, B.S.; Yap, Y.J.; Koh, R.Y.; Ng, K.Y.; Chye, S.M. Medicinal properties of Clinacanthus nutans: A review. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 2018, 17, 375–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hamid, H.A.; Yahya, I.H.; Yusoff, M.M.; Zareen, S. Bioassay-guided Isolation and Antioxidant Activity of Sulfur-containing Compounds from Clinacanthus nutans. J. Chin. Chem. Soc. 2016, 63, 1033–1037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Arullappan, S.; Rajamanickam, P.; Thevar, N.; Kodimani, C.C. In vitro screening of cytotoxic, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Clinacanthus nutans (Acanthaceae) leaf extracts. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 2014, 13, 1455–1461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kamarudin, M.N.A.; Sarker, M.M.R.; Kadir, H.A.; Ming, L.C. Ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemistry, biological activities, and therapeutic applications of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau: A comprehensive review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2017, 206, 245–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kangsamaksin, T.; Chaithongyot, S.; Wootthichairangsan, C.; Hanchaina, R.; Tangshewinsirikul, C.; Svasti, J. Lupeol and stigmasterol suppress tumor angiogenesis and inhibit cholangiocarcinoma growth in mice via downregulation of tumor necrosis factor-α. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0189628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Azam, A.A.; Ismail, I.S.; Vidyadaran, S.; Abas, F.; Shaari, K. ¹H NMR-Based Metabolomics of Clinacanthus nutans Leaves Extracts in Correlation with Their Anti-neuroinflammation Towards LPS-Induced BV2 Cells. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2020, 14(4), 231–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Le, C.-F.; Kailaivasan, T.H.; Chow, S.-C.; Abdullah, Z.; Ling, S.-K.; Fang, C.-M. Phytosterols isolated from Clinacanthus nutans induce immunosuppressive activity in murine cells. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2017, 44, 203–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khoo, L.W.; Audrey Kow, S.; Lee, M.T.; Tan, C.P.; Shaari, K.; Tham, C.L.; Abas, F. A comprehensive review on Phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. F.) Lindau. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2018, 2018, 9276260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sakdarat, S.; Shuyprom, A.; Ayudhya, T.D.N.; Waterman, P.G.; Karagianis, G. Chemical composition investigation of the Clinacanthus nutans Lindau leaves. Thai. J. Phytopharm. 2006, 13, 13–24. [Google Scholar]
- Raya, K.B.; Ahmad, S.H.; Farhana, S.F.; Mohammad, M.; Tajidin, N.E.; Parvez, A. Changes in phytochemical contents in different parts of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) lindau due to storage duration. Bragantia 2015, 74, 445–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nurulita, Y.; Dhanutirto, H.; Soemardji, A. Refining activity and antidiabetic compound leaf aqueous extract Dandang Gendis. J. Natural Indonesia 2008, 10, 98–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, H.; Peng, T.; Madhavan, P.; Shukkoor, M.A.; Akowuah, G. Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of methanolic extract of Clinacanthus nutans leaf. Int. J. Drug. Dev. Res. 2013, 5, 349–355. [Google Scholar]
- Abdullah, N.; Kasim, K. In-Vitro Antidiabetic Activity of Clinacanthus nutans Extracts. Int. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. Res. 2017, 9, 846–852. [Google Scholar]
- Zakaria, Z.A.; Rahim, M.H.A.; Sani, M.H.M.; Omar, M.H.; Ching, S.M.; Kadir, A.A.; Ahmed, Q.U. Antinociceptive activity of petroleum ether fraction obtained from methanolic extract of Clinacanthus nutans leaves involves the activation of opioid receptors and NO-mediated/cGMP-independent pathway. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2019, 19, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sekar, M.; Rashid, N.A. Formulation, evaluation and antibacterial properties of herbal ointment containing methanolic extract of Clinacanthus nutans leaves. Int. J. Pharm. 2016, 8, 1170–1174. [Google Scholar]
- Chelyn, J.L.; Omar, M.H.; Mohd Yousof, N.S.A.; Ranggasamy, R.; Wasiman, M.I.; Ismail, Z. Analysis of flavone C-glycosides in the leaves of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau by HPTLC and HPLC-UV/DAD. Sci. World J. 2014, 2014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alam, M.A.; Zaidul, I.; Ghafoor, K.; Sahena, F.; Hakim, M.; Rafii, M.; Abir, H.; Bostanudin, M.; Perumal, V.; Khatib, A. In vitro antioxidant and, α-glucosidase inhibitory activities and comprehensive metabolite profiling of methanol extract and its fractions from Clinacanthus nutans. BMC Complement Altern. Med. 2017, 17, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tan, L.T.-H.; Khaw, K.Y.; Ong, Y.S.; Khan, T.M.; Lee, L.-H.; Lee, W.-L.; Goh, B.-H. Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau as a Medicinal Plant with Diverse Pharmacological Values. In Plant-derived Bioactives; Swamy, M., Ed.; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 461–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ďuračková, Z.; Gvozdjáková, A. Mitochondrial Medicine; Gvozdjáková, A., Ed.; Springer: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008; pp. 19–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Irshad, M.; Chaudhuri, P.S. Oxidant-antioxidant system: Role and significance in human body. Indian J Exp Biol. 2002, 40, 1233–1239. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Abd Rahman, N.M.A.N.; Nurliyana, M.; Afiqah, M.N.N.; Osman, M.A.; Hamid, M.; Lila, M.A.M. Antitumor and antioxidant effects of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau in 4 T1 tumor-bearing mice. BMC Complement Altern. Med. 2019, 19, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ismail, N.Z.; Md Toha, Z.; Muhamad, M.; Nik Mohamed Kamal, N.N.S.; Mohamad Zain, N.N.; Arsad, H. Antioxidant effects, antiproliferative effects, and molecular docking of Clinacanthus nutans leaf extracts. Molecules 2020, 25, 2067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Haron, N.H.; Toha, Z.M.; Abas, R.; Hamdan, M.R.; Azman, N.; Khairuddean, M.; Arsad, H. In vitro cytotoxic activity of Clinacanthus nutans leaf extracts against HeLa cells. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2019, 20, 601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ismail, N.Z.; Arsad, H.; Samian, M.R.; Ab Majid, A.H.; Hamdan, M.R. Evaluation of genetic diversity of Clinacanthus nutans (Acanthaceaea) using RAPD, ISSR and RAMP markers. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants. 2016, 22, 523–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sakdarat, S.; Sittiso, S.; Ekalaksananan, T.; Pientong, C.; Charoensri, N.; Kongyingyoes, B. Study on Effects of compounds from Clinacanthus nutans on dengue virus type 2 infection. SSRN 2017, 16, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pongmuangmul, S.; Phumiamorn, S.; Sanguansermsri, P.; Wongkattiya, N.; Fraser, I.H.; Sanguansermsri, D. Anti-herpes simplex virus activities of monogalactosyl diglyceride and digalactosyl diglyceride from Clinacanthus nutans, a traditional Thai herbal medicine. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2016, 6, 192–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sookmai, W.; Ekalaksananan, T.; Pientong, C.; Sakdarat, S.; Kongyingyoes, B. The anti-papillomavirus infectivity of Clinacanthus nutans compounds. Srinagarind Med. J. 2011, 26, 240–243. [Google Scholar]
- Timpawat, S.; Vajrabhaya, L. Clinical evaluation of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau in orabase in the treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. MDJ 1994, 14, 10–16. [Google Scholar]
- Lim, S.-H.E.; Almakhmari, M.A.; Alameri, S.I.; Chin, S.-Y.; Abushelaibi, A.; Mai, C.-W.; Lai, K.-S. Antibacterial Activity of Clinacanthus nutans Polar and Non-Polar Leaves and Stem Extracts. Biomed. Pharmacol. J. 2020, 13, 1169–1175. [Google Scholar]
- Roeslan, M.O.; Ayudhya, T.D.N.; Yingyongnarongkul, B.-E.; Koontongkaew, S. Anti-biofilm, nitric oxide inhibition and wound healing potential of purpurin-18 phytyl ester isolated from Clinacanthus nutans leaves. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2019, 113, 108724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hanafiah, R.M.; Kamaruddin, K.A.C.; Saikin, N.A.A.; WNABWA, A.; Yakop, M.F.; Lim, V.; Ghafar, S.; Azizan, N.; Said, S.M. Antibacterial properties of clinacanthus nutans extracts against porphyromonas gingivalis and aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans: An in-vitro study. J. Int. Dent. Med. Res. 2019, 12, 401–404. [Google Scholar]
- Choonharuangdej, S.; Amornvit, P.; Srithavaj, T.; Alam, M.K. In vitro anti-candida effect of Thai herbs supplemented in tissue conditioner. Int. Med. J. 2014, 21, 331–334. [Google Scholar]
- Cheeptham, N.; Towers, G. Light-mediated activities of some Thai medicinal plant teas. Fitoterapia 2002, 73, 651–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cherdchu, C.; Poopyruchpong, N.; Adchariyasucha, R.; Ratanabanangkoon, K. The absence of antagonism between extracts of Clinacanthus nutans Burm. and Naja naja siamensis venom. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 1977, 8, 249–254. [Google Scholar]
- Uawonggul, N.; Thammasirirak, S.; Chaveerach, A.; Chuachan, C.; Daduang, J.; Daduang, S. Plant extract activities against the fibroblast cell lysis by honeybee venom. J. Med. Plant Res. 2011, 5, 1978–1986. [Google Scholar]
- Daduang, S.; Sattayasai, N.; Sattayasai, J.; Tophrom, P.; Thammathaworn, A.; Chaveerach, A.; Konkchaiyaphum, M. Screening of plants containing Naja naja siamensis cobra venom inhibitory activity using modified ELISA technique. Anal. Biochem. 2005, 341, 316–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Uawonggul, N.; Chaveerach, A.; Thammasirirak, S.; Arkaravichien, T.; Chuachan, C.; Daduang, S. Screening of plants acting against Heterometrus laoticus scorpion venom activity on fibroblast cell lysis. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2006, 103, 201–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ooi, S.H.; Noor Mohamed, N.M.; Kalaichelvam, R.K.; Lim, V. Effects of Clinacanthus nutans extracts on cytokine secretion in PMA-induced U937 macrophage cells. RJP 2021, 8, 27–35. [Google Scholar]
- Tu, S.-F.; Liu, R.H.; Cheng, Y.-B.; Hsu, Y.-M.; Du, Y.-C.; El-Shazly, M.; Wu, Y.-C.; Chang, F.-R. Chemical constituents and bioactivities of Clinacanthus nutans aerial parts. Molecules 2014, 19, 20382–20390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Umar Imam, M.; Ismail, M.; George, A.; Chinnappan, S.M.; Yusof, A. Aqueous leaf extract of Clinacanthus nutans improved metabolic indices and sorbitol-related complications in type II diabetic rats (T2D). Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 7, 1482–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Azemi, A.K.; Mokhtar, S.S.; Rasool, A.H.G. Clinacanthus nutans Leaves Extract Reverts Endothelial Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes Rats by Improving Protein Expression of eNOS. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2020, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Murugesu, S.; Ibrahim, Z.; Ahmed, Q.-U.; Nik Yusoff, N.-I.; Uzir, B.-F.; Perumal, V.; Abas, F.; Saari, K.; El-Seedi, H.; Khatib, A. Characterization of α-glucosidase inhibitors from Clinacanthus nutans Lindau leaves by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and molecular docking simulation. Molecules 2018, 23, 2402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Abdulwahid, S.J.; Goh, M.Y.; Ebrahimi, M.; Mohtarrudin, N.; Hashim, Z.B. Effects of Methanolic Leaf Extract of Clinacanthus nutans on Fatty Acid Composition and Gene Expression in Male Obese Mice. Preprints 2018, 2018040232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abdulwahid, S.; Ebrahimi, M.; Goh, Y.; Adeyemi, K.; Ismail, H.; Hashim, Z. Methanolic extract of Clinacanthus nutans leaves can alter adipocytes cellularity, inflammation, and acetyl cholinesterase activity in male obese mice. J. Obes. Weight Loss Ther. 2017, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahmod, I.I.; Ismail, I.S.; Alitheen, N.B.; Normi, Y.M.; Abas, F.; Khatib, A.; Latip, J. NMR and LCMS analytical platforms exhibited the nephroprotective effect of Clinacanthus nutans in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in the in vitro condition. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2020, 20, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ismail, I.; Mahmod Ilya, I. Nephroprotective effect of Clinacanthus nutans against cisplatin-induced human kidney cell (PCS-400-010). Planta Med. Int. 2017, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Azemi, A.K.; Mokhtar, S.S.; Rasool, A.H.G. Clinacanthus nutans: Its potential against diabetic vascular diseases. Braz. J. Pharm. Sci. 2021, 56, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Popkin, B.M.; Adair, L.S.; Ng, S.W. Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutr Rev. 2012, 70, 3–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nelson, R.H. Hyperlipidemia as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Prim. Care. 2013, 40, 195–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, Q.; Yon, J.-Y.; Cai, H. Mechanisms and consequences of eNOS dysfunction in hypertension. J. Hypertens. 2015, 33, 1128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chanda, S.; Parekh, J.; Vaghasiya, Y.; Dave, R.; Baravalia, Y.; Nair, R. Medicinal plants-from traditional use to toxicity assessment: A review. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2015, 6, 2652. [Google Scholar]
- Thongrakard, V.; Tencomnao, T. Modulatory effects of Thai medicinal plant extract on proinflammatory cytokines-induced apoptosis in human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2010, 9, 4999–5003. [Google Scholar]
- P’ng, X.W.; Akowuah, G.A.; Chin, J.H. Acute oral toxicity study of Clinacanthus nutans in mice. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2012, 3, 4202. [Google Scholar]
- Chavalittumrong, P.; Attawish, A.; Rugsamon, P.; Chuntapet, P. Toxicological study of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau. Warasan Krom Witthayasat Kan Phaet 1995, 37, 232–338. [Google Scholar]
- Abdulwahid, S.; Goh, M.; Ebrahimi, M.; Mohtarrudin, N.; Hashim, Z. Sub-acute oral toxicity profiling of the methanolic leaf extract of clinacanthus nutans in male and female ICR mice. Int. J. Pharm Pharm Sci 2018, 10, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aliyu, A.; Shaari, M.R.; Ahmad Sayuti, N.S.; Reduan, M.F.H.; Sithambaram, S.; Noordin, M.M.; Shaari, K.; Hamzah, H. Subacute oral administration of Clinacanthus nutans ethanolic leaf extract induced liver and kidney toxicities in ICR mice. Molecules 2020, 25, 2631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- P’ng, X.W.; Akowuah, G.A.; Chin, J.H. Evaluation of the sub–acute oral toxic effect of methanol extract of Clinacanthus nutans leaves in rats. J. Acute Dis. 2013, 2, 29–32. [Google Scholar]
Country | Language | Vernacular Names | References |
---|---|---|---|
Malaysia, Brunei | Malay, English | Pokok stawa ular, Belalai gajah, Sabahan snake grass | [3] |
Thailand | Thai | Phaya Plongtong, Phaya Yo, Saled Pangpon Tua Mea | [4,5] |
China | Mandarin | E zui hua, Sha be she cao, You dun cao, | [5,6,7] |
Indonesia | Jawa | Ki tajam Kijatan Daun dandang gendis | [3,8,9] |
Formulation | Therapeutic Purposes |
---|---|
Tea | Anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive and body detoxification |
Essential oil drop | Relieves oral herpes viral infection and aphthous ulcer |
Soap or body wash | Treatment of skin problems and blemishes |
Cream | Treatment of Herpes zoster and Herpes genitalis infection |
Lotion | Relieve urticarial, itching and rashes |
Powder | Anti-cancer, anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic |
Ointment | Relieve aches, cramps, sprains of muscular and joint, cold, flu and insect bites |
Balm | Relieve insect bites, skin rashes, inflammation, muscular pain and dizziness |
Elixir | Anti-cancer, alleviate period pain and diuretic properties for urinary tract and kidney diseases |
Capsules | General health maintenance, body detoxification, anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive |
Phytochemical Class | Phytochemical Compound | References |
---|---|---|
Phenolic compounds | 3,3-di-o-methylellagic acid, 4-vinylphenol, 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid, 6,8-di-c-α-l-arabinopyranoside, 7-hydroxyflavone, 7-o-β-glucopytanoside, Acorbic acid, Apigenin, Apigenin-6-c-β-d-glucopyranosrl-8-c-α-l- arabiopyranoside, Caffeic acid, Cinnamic acid, Chlorogenic acid, Ferulic acid, Gallic acid, Gendarucin A, Isomollupentin, Isoorientin, Isovitexin, Kamferol, Orientin, Oxoprolinates Protocatechuic acid, Quercetin, Rutin trihydrate, Shaftoside, Syringic acid, Vanillin, Vitexin, Vanillic acid | [3,14,15,16,17,18] |
Sulphur containing compounds | 2-cis-entadamide A, Clinamides A, B, C, D & E, Entadamine A & C | [19,20,21,22] |
Sulphur containing glycosides compounds | Clinacoside A, B & C, Cycloclinacoside A1 & A2 | [19,23] |
Terpens-tripenoids | Lupeol | [19,24] |
Terpens-phytosterols | β-sitosterol, Stigmasterol, Stigmasterol-β-d-glucoside Stigmasteryl-3-o-β-glucopyranoside | [3,25,26,27] |
Chlorophyll related compounds | 132-hydroxyl-(132-R)-chlorophyll b, 132-hydroxyl-(132-S)-chlorophyll b, 132-hydroxyl-(132-R)-phaeophytin a, 132-hydroxyl-(132-R)-phaeophytin b, 132-hydroxyl-(132-S)-phaeophytin a | [5,28] |
Extraction Solvent | Functional Group | References |
---|---|---|
Water | Alkaloid, Diterpenes, Phytosterol, Saponin, Triterpenoids | [30,31,32,33] |
70% methanol | Carbohydrate, Flavonoids, Glycosides, Phytosterol, Protein and amino acid, Steroids, Tannin | [30,31,34] |
100% methanol | Flavonoids, Phenolic compound, Phytosterol, Saponin, Steroids, Triterpenoids | [27,31,34] |
100% chloroform | Alkaloid, Flavonoids, Glycosides, Tannin | [30,31,34] |
Nutritional Composition | Percentage (%) | Weight (mg/100 g) |
---|---|---|
Ash | 10.0 ± 0.20 | |
Calcium | 874.50 ± 31.25 | |
Carbohydrate | 73.27 ± 3.14 | |
Copper | 0.26 ± 0.01 | |
Fat | 0.50 ± 0.02; 2.11 ± 0.66 | |
Fiber | 2.71 ± 0.05 | |
Moisture | 9.28 ± 0.40; 78.30 ± 0.29 | |
Potassium | 1097.90 ± 6.93 | |
Protein | 5.16 ± 0.08; 5.73 ± 0.14 | |
Sodium | 6.78 ± 1.01 | |
Vitamin B1 | 0.27 ± 0.04 | |
Vitamin C | 1.57 ± 0.07 |
Pharmacological Activity | Extract/Fraction | Dose Tested/ Test Method | Animals/ Cell line Culture (In Vivo/In Vitro) | Experimental Model/ Clinical Trial | Result | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(a) Antioxidant and Anti-cancer Properties | ||||||
Antioxidant, protection against oxidative stress and anti-tumor | 80% methanolic leaves extracts | 200 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg methanolic extracts | Murine mammary carcinoma cell line, 4-T1 cells (In-vitro); Female BALB/c mice (In-vivo) | Antitumor and antioxidant in 4-T1 tumor bearing mice | Significant decrease in NO and MDA levels in the blood. High dose (1000 mg/kg) extracts significant decrease the number of mitotic cells, tumor weight, and tumor volume | [40] |
Antioxidant scavenging activity, and anti-proliferative effects on breast cancer cells | 80% methanolic leaves extracts, and further fractionated sequentially with different solvents (hexane, dichloromethane, chloroform, n-butanol, and aqueous residue) | MCF 10A cells started with 500 µg/mL (CN-crude and CN-aqueous) and 120 µg/mL (CN-hexane, CN-dichloromethane, CN-chloroform, and CN-butanol fraction extracts | Breast cancer (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 [MC ]) and normal breast (Michigan Cancer Foundation-10A [MCF 10A]) cells (In-vitro) | Molecular docking simulation of the major compounds from C. nutans leaves extract was conducted | Total phenolic content of C. nutans leaves extract was higher than that of total flavonoid content. CN-dichloromethane extract had the strongest anti-proliferative effect thatinhibited MC cell growth and less toxic towards MCF 10A cells | [41] |
Anti-proliferative activity of extracts of C. nutans leaves against human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells | 80% methanol or water extract. The methanol extract was further extracted to obtain hexane, dichloromethane and aqueous fraction | 4,000 µg/mL (water, 80% methanol, and its aqueous fraction) or 250 µg/mL (hexane and dichloromethane fractions of the methanol extract | HeLa cells (ATCC®CCL-2™) (In-vitro) | HeLa cells using the Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay | Extracts wereanti-proliferative against HeLa cells, and the dichloromethane fraction had the lowest IC50 value of 70 µg/mL at 48 h. Microscopic studies showed that HeLa cells exposed to the DCM fraction exhibited marked morphological features of apoptosis | [41] |
Antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, with a subsequent analysis of total phenolic and total flavonoid content of methanol extract | Liquid-liquid partition chromatography in a separating funnel using hexane, methanol, and water (13:2:5) | Total phenolic content determined spectrophotometrically using Folin-Ciocalteu method, total flavonoid content estimated according to the based on the formation of aluminum-flavonoid complexes. DPPH for free radical scavenging capacity and FRAP method for total antioxidant capacity | Antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of methanol extract and its different fractions from C. nutans leaves using biochemical assays (In–vitro) | Identified the various chemical constituents of the extract and fractions by GC Q-TOF MS, in addition to bioactivity correlation | Ethyl acetate and butanol fractions of the methanol extract had the highest antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity which showed a significant correlation with the total phenolic and total flavonoid contents of the fractions | [36] |
(b) Anti-viral Properties | ||||||
Study compounds from C. nutans leaves on dengue virus type 2 infection | hexane and chloroform leaves extract | 20 µL of leaves extract in MTT (3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide. Incubate 3 h at 37 °C | A549 cell monolayers grown in 24- well tissue culture plates were adsorbed with the 0.01 MOI of treated dengue virus serotype-2 (In-vitro) | Anti-viral activity in pre-incubation vs. post-incubation period and tested using ELISA and RT-PCR | Phaeophorbide- a methyl ester compound was identified in the extracts could inhibit the dengue virus serotypes-2 replication in post-incubation study | [44] |
Anti-herpes simplex virus activities of monogalactosyl diglyceride and digalactosyl diglyceride from C. nutans leaves | chloroform leavesextract | 100 mL of Vero cells at concentration 2.5 × 105 cell/mL seeded into culture medium at 37 °C with 5% CO2 for 1 day with differentconcentrations of chloroform crude extract (20 mL) using MTT assay | Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells) cultured with Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium, supplemented with 5% fetal bovine serum. (In-vitro) | Cytotoxicity of viral activities was evaluated by the MTT assay samples were measured at 490 nm via spectrophotometry | 100% inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication at the post step of infection with IC50 values of 36.00 and 40.00 mg/mL, and herpes simplex virus type 2 at 41.00 and 43.20 mg/mL respectively | [45] |
Anti-papillomavirus infectivity of C. nutans compounds | 136B, 136C and 136D of C. nutans compounds dissolve in DMSO and heparin solution | The amount of viable cells was determined by adding 20 µL of 5 mg/mL MTT solution using 293FT cells dissolved with 100 µL of DMSO using an ELISA reader | Human Papillomavirus 16 PsVs co-transfection of P16 shell and pfwB into 293FT cells (In-vitro) | Human Papillomavirus 16 PsVs treated with or without various concentrations of each compound. Human papilloma virus 16 PsVs were adsorbed directly on 293FT cells, infected cells expressing green fluorescent protein and determined under fluorescent microscope | 136B, 136C and 136 D compounds inhibited the early step of infection by direct binding between human papillomavirus particles and host cell receptor and also prevent human papillomavirus 16 PsVs internalization. | [46] |
Anti-Vera zoster virus infection in oral ulcer | Topical formulation | 4 times daily on infected area and assessed at least 3 times during treatment course | Human oral cavity (In-vivo) | Recurrent aphthous stomatitis | Reduces pain score and healed the lesion caused by Vera zoster virus | [47] |
(c) Anti-bacterial Properties | ||||||
Growth inhibition in all twelve bacteria species: Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus | Non-polar and polar C. nutans leaves extract | C. nutans leaves extract range from 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 mg/mL | Cell lines in triplicate containing 40µL of bacterial suspension (final conc. of 2–8 × 105 cfu/mL) with 50 µL of test compound inoculated with 10 µL of resazurin. (In-vitro) | Broth micro dilution method was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) based on the CLSI M07-A8 guidelines | Growth inhibition in all 12 bacteria species as extract concentration increased. Non-polar extracts have stronger antibacterial activity than those polar extracts solution in the 32 mg/kg concentration | [48] |
Anti-biofilm, nitric oxide inhibition and wound healing potential of purpurin-18-phytyl ester (P18PE) isolated from C. nutans leaves | C. nutans leaves -hexane (20.05 g), chloroform (16.2 g) and ethanol (38.34 g) extracts | C. nutans leaves extract range from (5–500 μg/mL) | 1 × 105 cells (RAW 264.7 or HGFs)/well were incubated overnight in 96-well plates. | Murine macrophage RAW 264.7 and HGF cell culture. | Possess anti-inflammatory, in-vitro wound healing, and anti-biofilm activities. | [49] |
Antibacterial properties of C. nutans leaves extracts against Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans | 100%, 50%, 10% ethanol and 100% chloroformextracts | C. nutans leaves extract range from 12.5, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg | Disc diffusion agar, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) antibacterial susceptibility tests (In-vitro) | Disc diffusion agar test | 50% ethanolic extracts have notable antibacterial activity against P. gingivalis and A. actinomycetamcomitans comparable to 0.2% chlorhexidine. Meanwhile, chloroform extract has notable antibacterial activity against P. gingivalis only | [50] |
(d) Anti-fungal Properties | ||||||
In-vitro Anti-Candida Effect of Thai Herbs Supplemented in Tissue Conditioner | 10% aqueous extracts | C. nutans leaves range from 0.354, 0.709, 1.418, 2.836, 5.672, 11.344 µL/mL) in tissue conditioner | Agar disk diffusion (inhibition zone appearance) and micro-broth dilution (MIC and MFC determination Methods (In-vitro) | Liquid part of COE-COMFORTTM tissue conditioner | Negative inhibitory activity against Candida albicans | [51] |
Light-mediated activities against Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus | 95% ethanolic extracts | C. nutans leaves extract at 5 mg/mL | Agar disk diffusion (In-vitro) | Disc diffusion agar test | Extracts were ineffective to exhibit fungicidal effect on both fungus species | [52] |
In-vitro anti-fungal activities of C. nutans leaves extract and semi-fractions | Crude extracts (0.2 to 10.0 mg/mL) subjected to cold solvent extraction to produce petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and methanol crude extracts, followed by isolation using bioassay-guided fractionation. | C. nutans leaves extract at 2 mg/mL, 4 mg/mL, 6 mg/mL, 8 mg/mL, 10 mg/mL | HeLa and K-562 cell lines cultured in RPMI1640 and DMEM complete medium (In-vitro) | Fungal suspensions were streaked on MHA and SDA medium followed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal (MFC) assay | A minimal concentration of 1.39 mg/mL of ethyl acetate extract exhibited a fraction of antifungal effect on Candida albicans | [22] |
(e) Anti-venom Properties | ||||||
Extracts of C. nutans and Naja naja siamensis venom | 95% alcoholic C. nutans leaves extract | 0.406 mg/mL to 0.706 mg/mL administered orally or intraperitoneally | Mice (In-vivo) | Isolated rat phrenic-nerve diaphragm in mice | Failed to exert the antidote effect against the neurotoxin | [53] |
C. nutans extract activities against the fibroblast cell lysis | 0, 50 or 90% ethanolic extracts | 0.406 mg/mL to 0.706 mg/mL | Chick embryonic fibroblast cell primary cultures (In-vitro) | Swiss Webster female mice | Completely negative results as anti-bee venom agents | [54] |
Extracts of C. nutans Burm. and Naja naja siamensis venom | Water extract | 0.406 mg/mL to 0.706 mg/mL administered orally or intraperitoneally | Mice (In-vivo) | Isolated rat phrenic-nerve diaphragm in mice | Reduced mortality rate by 27%; from 100% to 63 ± 3.34% | [53] |
Screening of C. nutans containing Naja naja siamensis cobra venom inhibitory activity using modified ELISA technique. | Water extract | extracts at 1:250 pre-incubated for 30 min at 37 °C with 40 g/mL venom in DMEM (test) or without DMEM lacking venom(control) | Modified ELISA technique (In-vitro) | Phrenic nerve/ Hemi-diaphragms isolated from adult albino rats, weighing 150 to 200 g | 35% of inhibitory activity and the extract attenuated toxin activity by extending contraction time of diaphragm muscle | [55] |
Screening of C. nutans plant acting against Heterometrus laoticus scorpion venom activity on fibroblast cell lysis | Water extract | 0.406 mg/mL to 0.706 mg/mL pre-incubated with DMEM (as mock controls), or with 0.2 g/L venom | Chick embryonic fibroblast cell primary cultures (In-vitro) | Chick embryonic fibroblast cell | Exhibited 46.5% fibroblast cell lysis in Heterometrus laoticus scorpion venom at 0.706 mg/mL but its cytotoxic effect is unsure | [56] |
(f) Analgesic and Anti-nociceptive Properties | ||||||
C. nutans leaves extract mediated silver and, gold nanoparticles on muscle relaxant, analgesic activities for pain management | Methanolic extract encoated in silver and gold nanoparticles | 50, 100, 200 mg/kg per body weight in gold and silver nanoparticles; 100, 200, 400 mg/kg per body weight in methanol extract | Intra-peritoneal injection of extracts on BALB/c mice (In-vivo) | Twisted wire traction technique for muscle relaxant study and writhing for analgesic study | Extract exerted a very good analgesic and muscle relaxant activities for use in pain management. Gold nanoparticles had most efficient analgesic activity at a small concentration of 50 mg/kg | [paper retracted] |
Anti-nociceptive activity of petroleum ether fraction obtained from methanolic extract of C. nutans leaves via opioid receptors and NO mediated/cGMP-independent pathway | Petroleum ether fraction from methanolic extract of C. nutans leaves | 100, 250, 500 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally | Adult male ICR mice (In-vivo) | Acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction test, hot plate test, formalin–induced paw licking test, and motor coordination Rota–rod test | Petroleum ether C. nutans leaves extract exerted anti-nociceptive activity at peripheral and central levels via the activation of nonselective opioid receptors | [33] |
(g) Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Properties | ||||||
Effects of C. nutans leaves extract on cytokine secretion in PMA-induced U937 macrophage cells | Water and ethanol leaves extract | 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 mg/mL | Viability of the extract-treated cells using Presto-Blue test; IL-4 and IL-13 secretion tested via ELISA (In-vitro) | U937 monocyte-derived macrophages | In-vitro assays on interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13) cytokines secretion in PMA-induced U937 macrophage cells showed reduction of cells viability to 87%, CD14 expression was down-regulated by 36% and CD11b expression was up-regulated by 58%. | [57] |
Anti-Inflammatory and immune-modulating activity in C. nutans leaves extract | 80% ethanol leaves extract | 0.1 to 10 µg/mL ethanolic extract | Anti-inflammatory: MeO-Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro Valp-nitroanilide was used for observing elastase release and superoxide anion production; Immune-modulating: Lactobacillus casei on IgE production, splenocyte obtained from ovalbumin (OVA)-primed BALB/c mice (In-vivo) | Ovalbumin (OVA)-primed BALB/c mice | 68.33% inhibition on the generation of superoxide anion and the elastase release by activated neutrophils by 10 µg/mL ethanolic extract; 0.1 μg/mL of 80% ethanol extract led to up-regulation of IFN-γ | [58] |
(h) Anti-hyperglycemic Properties | ||||||
Aqueous leaf extract of C. nutans improved metabolic indices and sorbitol-related complications in type II diabetic rats | Hot water extraction method where leaves are mixed with water in a 1:10 ratio (w/v) for 3 h at 100 °C | 100, 200 mg/kg/day of water extract | Male Sprague Dawley rats (In-vivo) | Streptozotocin induced diabetic rat model | Improved glycemic control and complications. In fact at higher doses (200 mg/kg), C. nutans leaves extract showed better results | [59] |
C. nutans leaves extract reverts endothelial dysfunction in type-2 diabetes rats by improving protein expression of eNOS | Methanolic extract from leaves | 300, 500 mg/kg/day of methanolic extract | Male Sprague Dawley rats (In-vivo) | Intraperitoneal injection of low-dose streptozotocin to rats fed with high-fat diet | Improved endothelium-dependent relaxation, reduced endothelium -dependent and endothelium-independent contraction in the aorta of diabetic rats | [60] |
Characterization of α-glucosidase inhibitors from C. nutans Leaves by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-based metabolomics and molecular docking simulation | 80% methanol using the sample to solvent ratio of 1:3 (w/v) for 3 days where the solvent was changed each consecutive day. i.e., hexane; hexane: ethyl acetate; ethyl acetate; ethyl acetate: methanol | 10 µL from each sample extracts | gas chromatography-mass spectrometrybased metabolomics and molecular docking simulation (In-silico) | α-glucosidase inhibitory potential of C. nutans using the gas chromatography tandem with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) | α-glucosidase inhibitors were identified in C. nutans leaves, indicating the plant’s therapeutic effect to manage hyperglycemia | [61] |
(i) Anti-hyperlipidemia properties | ||||||
Effects of methanolic leaf extract of C. nutans on fatty acid composition and gene expression in male obese mice | Methanolic leaves extract | 500, 1000, 1500 mg/kg of leaves extract | Male ICR mice (In-vivo) | High fat diet induced obesity mice | Reduced the body weight, visceral fat and muscle saturated fatty acid compositions and down-regulated the levels of HSL, PPAR α and PPAR γ and SCD gene expressions with 1500 mg/kg had optimum efficacy | [62] |
Methanolic Extract of C. nutans Leaves can alter adipocyte Cellularity activity in male obese mice | Methanolic leaves extract | 19.5, 39.0 and 58.5 mg/mL of leaves extract | Male ICR mice (In-vivo) | High fat diet induced obesity mice | Lowered adipocyte area, size, and diameter and reduced plasma total cholesterol in mice but had no effect on plasma lipid profile | [63] |
Effects of phenolic-rich extracts of C. nutans on high fat and high cholesterol diet-induced insulin resistance | Water and 80% aqueous methanol leaves extract | oral gavage of 125, 250 or 500 mg/kg/day of leaves extract | Male Sprague-Dawley rats (In-vivo) | High fat and high cholesterol rat | Slowed the rate of weight gain induced by high fat-high cholesterol diet | [16] |
(j) Vasorelaxation Properties | ||||||
Anti-hypertensive and vasodilatory effects C. nutans leaves extract | Water extract, 50% ethanol extract and 95% ethanol extract from leaves | 100 µL of herbal extracts added cumulatively to the organ bath at concentrations from 0.125 mg/mL to 128 mg/mL (equivalent to 0.00125–1.28 mg/mL in organ bath) | Male Sprague-Dawley rats (In-vitro) | Pre-contracted aortic rings from rat thoracic aorta | Prominent vasorelaxant activities with highest Rmax values of 95% ethanol extracts (72.67 ± 1.61%) > 50% ethanol extracts (73.57 ± 2.99%) > water extracts (55.85 ± 2.35%) | [11] |
(k) Renoprotective Properties | ||||||
Nephroprotective effect of C. nutans leaves against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity | Aqueous extracts | 100, 200 or 400 mg/kg/day for 90 days by oral gavage | Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats (In-vivo) | Cisplatin-induced renal toxicity in rats | Attenuated the renal toxicity and further increase the glomerular filtration rate, serum electrolytes, and urine creatinine excretion | [unpublished data of same lab] |
The nephroprotective effect of C. nutans in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in the in vitro condition | Water and ethanol extracts | Extractions using different ratios of ethanol to water (0 to 100%, with 20% increment) | Cell viability assay MTT assay, Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay and NMR analysis of cell extract and corresponding culture Media (In-vitro) | Rat renal proximal tubular cells (NRK-52E) line | 1000 μg/mL of C. nutans leaves extract had the most potential nephroprotective effect against cisplatin toxicity on NRK-52E cell lines at 89% of viability | [64] |
Nephroprotective effect of C. nutans leaves extract against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxic humankidney cells | Water and ethanol extracts | Extractions using different ratios of ethanol to water (0 to 100%, with 20% increment) | Cell viability assay MTT assay, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay (In-vitro) | human kidney cell (PCS-400–010) culture | Improved the % of cell viability in mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenese (LDH) assay after 24 h pretreatment of the extract | [65] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Chia, T.Y.; Gan, C.Y.; Murugaiyah, V.; Hashmi, S.F.; Fatima, T.; Ibrahim, L.; Abdulla, M.H.; Alswailmi, F.K.; Johns, E.J.; Ahmad, A. A Narrative Review on the Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Therapeutic Potentials of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Leaves as an Alternative Source of Future Medicine. Molecules 2022, 27, 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27010139
Chia TY, Gan CY, Murugaiyah V, Hashmi SF, Fatima T, Ibrahim L, Abdulla MH, Alswailmi FK, Johns EJ, Ahmad A. A Narrative Review on the Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Therapeutic Potentials of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Leaves as an Alternative Source of Future Medicine. Molecules. 2022; 27(1):139. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27010139
Chicago/Turabian StyleChia, Tan Yong, Chee Yuen Gan, Vikneswaran Murugaiyah, Syed F. Hashmi, Tabinda Fatima, Lazhari Ibrahim, Mohammed H. Abdulla, Farhan Khashim Alswailmi, Edward James Johns, and Ashfaq Ahmad. 2022. "A Narrative Review on the Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Therapeutic Potentials of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Leaves as an Alternative Source of Future Medicine" Molecules 27, no. 1: 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27010139