Journal Description
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on all aspects of the science of polysaccharides and their derivatives, published quarterly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within ESCI (Web of Science), Scopus, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Engineering (miscellaneous))
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
Impact Factor:
4.7 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
4.6 (2023)
Latest Articles
Hydrogen Bond Integration in Potato Microstructure: Effects of Water Removal, Thermal Treatment, and Cooking Techniques
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 609-629; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040039 - 11 Oct 2024
Abstract
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to study the effects of heat treatments and water removal by freeze-drying after different time intervals (6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h) on the molecular structure of potato
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Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to study the effects of heat treatments and water removal by freeze-drying after different time intervals (6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h) on the molecular structure of potato tubers. SEM images show structural differences between raw (RP), microwaved (MP), and boiled potato (BP). MP showed a cracked structure. BP was able to re-associate into a granule-like structure after 6 h of freeze-dying, whereas RP had dried granules within a porous matrix after 24 h of freeze-drying. These results are consistent with the moisture content and FTIR results for MP and BP, which demonstrated dried spectra after 6 h of freeze-drying and relatively coincided with RP results after 24 h of freeze-drying. Additionally, three types of hydrogen bonds have been characterized between water and starch, and the prevalence of water very weakly bound to starch has also been detected. The relative crystallinity (RC) was increased by thermal treatment, whereby microwaving recorded the highest value. A comparison of the FTIR and XRD results indicated that freeze-drying treatment overcomes heat effects to generate an integral starch molecule.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Polysaccharides: Structure and Applications)
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Hydroxyethyl Starch, a Synthetic Colloid Used to Restore Blood Volume, Attenuates Shear-Induced Distortion but Accelerates the Convection of Sodium Hyaluronic Acid
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Tsuneo Tatara
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 598-608; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040038 - 10 Oct 2024
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Hyaluronic acid (HA) plays important roles in tissue hydration and the transport of fluid and solutes through the interstitium. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) solution is a synthetic colloid solution used during surgery. As HES leaks into the interstitium under inflammatory conditions during surgery, the
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Hyaluronic acid (HA) plays important roles in tissue hydration and the transport of fluid and solutes through the interstitium. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) solution is a synthetic colloid solution used during surgery. As HES leaks into the interstitium under inflammatory conditions during surgery, the effects of HES on HA’s structure and distribution are of clinical relevance. To examine these under fluid shear stress, dynamic shear moduli of 0.1% sodium hyaluronic acid (NaHA) solution with or without HES during shear stress loading were measured using a rotational rheometer for 8 h. The loss shear modulus of NaHA in 0.15 M NaCl solution decreased over time by 30% relative to that before shear stress loading. The presence of 1% and 2% HES reduced the decrease in loss shear modulus of NaHA solution to 20% and 4%, respectively. To investigate the convective transport of 0.1% fluorescein-labeled hyaluronic acid (FHA) by infusion of 0.15 M NaCl or HES solution, the absorbance of FHA in a UV flow cell was continuously measured. HES solution of 0.5% increased transported FHA quantities by 120% compared to 0.15 M NaCl solution. HES-induced attenuation of shear-induced distortion of HA and acceleration of convective transport of HA should be considered during surgery.
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Open AccessArticle
Effect of Degree of Substitution and Molecular Weight on Transfection Efficacy of Starch-Based siRNA Delivery System
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Amir Regev, Chen Benafsha, Riki Goldbart, Tamar Traitel, Moshe Elkabets and Joseph Kost
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 580-597; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040037 - 7 Oct 2024
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising approach for gene therapy in cancers, but it requires carriers to protect and deliver therapeutic small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules to cancerous cells. Starch-based carriers, such as quaternized starch (Q-Starch), have been shown to be biocompatible and
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RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising approach for gene therapy in cancers, but it requires carriers to protect and deliver therapeutic small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules to cancerous cells. Starch-based carriers, such as quaternized starch (Q-Starch), have been shown to be biocompatible and are able to form nanocomplexes with siRNA, but significant electrostatic interactions between the carrier and siRNA prevent its release at the target site. In this study, we aim to characterize the effects of the degree of substitution (DS) and molecular weight (Mw) of Q-Starch on the gene silencing capabilities of the Q-Starch/siRNA transfection system. We show that reducing the DS reduces the electrostatic interactions between Q-Starch and siRNA, which now decomplex at more physiologically relevant conditions, but also affects additional parameters such as complex size while mostly maintaining cellular uptake capabilities. Notably, reducing the DS renders Q-Starch more susceptible to enzymatic degradation by α-amylase during the initial Q-Starch pretreatment. Enzymatic cleavage leads to a reduction in the Mw of Q-Starch, resulting in a 25% enhancement in its transfection capabilities. This study provides a better understanding of the effects of the DS and Mw on the polysaccharide-based siRNA delivery system and indicates that the polysaccharide Mw may be the key factor in determining the transfection efficacy of this system.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Polysaccharides: Structure and Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Polyelectrolytes Complex-Based Hydrogels Derived from Natural Polymers and Cannabinoids for Applications as Wound Dressing
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Paula Rodriguez Gerpe, Sebastián D’Ippólito, Débora Nercessian, Micaela Ferrante, Vera A. Alvarez and Jimena S. Gonzalez
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 567-579; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040036 - 3 Oct 2024
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This research work focuses on the development of an environmentally friendly wound dressing using natural polymers. The inclusion of cannabis in these hydrogels stems from its innovative potential in medicine, particularly for wound healing and pain relief. The hydrogels were prepared by a
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This research work focuses on the development of an environmentally friendly wound dressing using natural polymers. The inclusion of cannabis in these hydrogels stems from its innovative potential in medicine, particularly for wound healing and pain relief. The hydrogels were prepared by a simple methodology using natural polysaccharides, and cannabis extract through electrostatic interactions and crosslinking with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). Several tests were carried out to analyze the morphological, physical, thermal, mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial properties of these hydrogels. Different types of hydrogels were synthesized including chitosan- gum arabic hydrogel (ChiGA), hydrogel loaded with cannabis extract (ChiGACann), hydrogel crosslinked with TPP (ChiGATPP), and ChiGACann crosslinked with TPP (ChiGACannTPP). The impact of both cannabis extract and TPP crosslinking on the properties of chitosan hydrogels was investigated. The significant swelling capacity measured to the hydrogels, with ChiGACann exhibiting a 250–350% in physiological conditions, making them suitable for wound dressing applications due to their exudate absorption capacity. Antimicrobial activity evaluation demonstrated that the hydrogels acted as barriers against different microorganisms, with Gram-positive bacteria being more sensitive than Gram-negative bacteria. Mechanical testing showed improved mechanical properties in the presence of cannabis extract and TPP crosslinking (20–30 kPa of compression modulus). In conclusion, these results highlight the application of ChiGACann hydrogels as promising materials for manufacturing wound dressings.
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Open AccessArticle
Optimized Furfural Production Using the Acid Catalytic Conversion of Xylan Liquor from Organosolv-Fractionated Rice Husk
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Hyeong Gyun Ahn, Ja Eun Lee, Hyunjoon Kim, Hyun Jin Jung, Kyeong Keun Oh, Su Hak Heo and Jun Seok Kim
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 552-566; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040035 - 2 Oct 2024
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This study determined the optimal production of furfural (FuR) from liquid hydrolysate xylan liquor obtained through a two-stage pretreatment process using NaOH for de-ashing and EtOH for the delignification of raw rice husk (RH). The de-ashing pretreatment was conducted at 150 °C, with
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This study determined the optimal production of furfural (FuR) from liquid hydrolysate xylan liquor obtained through a two-stage pretreatment process using NaOH for de-ashing and EtOH for the delignification of raw rice husk (RH). The de-ashing pretreatment was conducted at 150 °C, with 6.0% (w/v) NaOH and a reaction time of 40 min. The optimal conditions for delignification pretreatment, performed using an organosolv fractionation method with EtOH, were a reaction temperature of 150 °C, 60% (v/v) EtOH, 0.25% (w/v) H2SO4, and a reaction time of 90 min. Through a two-stage pretreatment process, a liquid hydrolysate in the form of xylan liquor was obtained, which was subjected to an acid catalytic conversion process to produce FuR. The process conditions were varied, with reaction temperatures of 130–170 °C, H2SO4 catalyst concentrations of 1.0–3.0 wt.%, and reaction times of 0–90 min. The Response Surface Methodology tool was used to identify the optimal FuR yield from xylan liquor. Ultimately, the optimal process conditions for the acid catalytic conversion were found to be a substrate-to-catalyst ratio of 2:8, a reaction temperature of 168.9 °C, a catalyst concentration of 1.9 wt.%, and a reaction time of 41.24 min, achieving an FuR yield of 67.31%.
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Open AccessArticle
The Chitinous Skeleton of Ianthella basta Marine Demosponge as a Renewable Scaffold-Based Carrier of Antiseptics
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Izabela Dziedzic, Kamil Dydek, Alona Voronkina, Valentin Kovalchuk, Teofil Jesionowski and Hermann Ehrlich
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 540-551; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040034 - 1 Oct 2024
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The chitinous skeleton of the marine demosponge Ianthella basta exhibits a unique network-like 3D architecture, excellent capillary properties, and chemical inertness, making it highly suitable for interdisciplinary research, especially in biomedical applications. This study investigates the potential of renewable I. basta chitinous scaffolds
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The chitinous skeleton of the marine demosponge Ianthella basta exhibits a unique network-like 3D architecture, excellent capillary properties, and chemical inertness, making it highly suitable for interdisciplinary research, especially in biomedical applications. This study investigates the potential of renewable I. basta chitinous scaffolds for drug delivery and wound dressing. The scaffolds, characterized by a microtubular structure, were impregnated with selected commercially available antiseptics, including solutions with hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. Evaluations against selected clinical strains of bacteria, as well as fungi, demonstrated significant zones of growth inhibition with antiseptics such as brilliant green, gentian violet, decamethoxine, and polyhexanide. Notably, the antibacterial properties of these antiseptic-treated chitin matrices persisted for over 72 h, effectively inhibiting microbial growth in fresh cultures. These findings highlight the considerable potential of I. basta chitin scaffolds as sustainable, innovative biomaterials for controlled drug release and wound dressing applications.
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Open AccessArticle
Biopolymer from Annona muricata Residues as a Potential Sustainable Raw Material for Industrial Applications
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Igor F. S. Ramos, Samuel C. Dias, Talissa B. C. Lopes, Francisco T. dos S. Silva Júnior, Ricardo de Araújo, Stanley J. C. Gutierrez, Claudia Pessoa, Josy A. Osajima, Marcia S. Rizzo, Edson C. Silva-Filho, Manuela Amorim, Óscar Ramos, Alessandra B. Ribeiro and Marcilia P. Costa
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 523-539; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040033 - 26 Sep 2024
Abstract
Annona muricata is a fruit species belonging to the Annonaceae family, which is native to the warmer tropical areas of North and South America. A large amount of discarded residue from A. muricata is of interest for obtaining new industrial inputs. To propose
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Annona muricata is a fruit species belonging to the Annonaceae family, which is native to the warmer tropical areas of North and South America. A large amount of discarded residue from A. muricata is of interest for obtaining new industrial inputs. To propose the applications of the biopolymer from A. muricata residues (Biop_AmRs), this study aimed to characterize this input chemically and functionally, as well as to evaluate its potential for hemocompatibility and cytotoxicity activity in vitro. Biop_AmRs is an anionic heteropolysaccharide composed of glucose, arabinose, xylose, galactose, mannose, uronic acid, and proteins. This biopolymer exhibited a semicrystalline structure and good thermal stability. Biop_AmRs exhibited excellent water holding capacity, emulsifying properties, and mucoadhesiviness and demonstrated hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility on the L929 cell line. These results indicate possible applications for this biopolymer as a potential environmentally friendly raw material in the food, pharmaceutical, biomedical, and cosmetic industries.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Polymers from Renewable Resources, 2nd Volume)
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Structural and Thermal Characterization of Some Thermoplastic Starch Mixtures
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Maria Daniela Stelescu, Ovidiu-Cristian Oprea, Maria Sonmez, Anton Ficai, Ludmila Motelica, Denisa Ficai, Mihai Georgescu and Dana Florentina Gurau
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(4), 504-522; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5040032 - 24 Sep 2024
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The paper presents the production of thermoplastic starch (TPS) mixtures using potato starch and two types of plasticizers: glycerol and sorbitol. The effects of plasticizers, citric acid, organically modified montmorillonite clay nanofiller (OMMT) and an additive based on ultrahigh molecular weight siloxane polymer
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The paper presents the production of thermoplastic starch (TPS) mixtures using potato starch and two types of plasticizers: glycerol and sorbitol. The effects of plasticizers, citric acid, organically modified montmorillonite clay nanofiller (OMMT) and an additive based on ultrahigh molecular weight siloxane polymer on the structure and physical–mechanical and thermal properties of TPS samples were analysed. Starch mixtures plasticized with glycerol were obtained, where the starch/glycerol mass ratio was 70:30, as well as starch mixtures plasticized with glycerol and sorbitol, with a starch/glycerol/sorbitol mass ratio of 60:20:20. The starch gelatinization process to obtain TPS was carried out in a Brabender Plasti-Corder internal mixer at 120 °C, with a mixing speed of 30–80 rpm, for 10 min. The obtained results indicate that by adding 2% (weight percentage) of citric acid to the TPS mixtures, there is an improvement in the physical–mechanical properties, as well as structural changes that can indicate both cross-linking reactions by esterification in stages and depolymerisation reactions. The sample of TPS plasticized with glycerol, which contains OMMT, shows an increase in tensile strength by 34.4%, compared to the control sample.
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Open AccessArticle
Characterization of Exopolysaccharides Isolated from Donkey Milk and Its Biological Safety for Skincare Applications
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Chiara La Torre, Pierluigi Plastina, Diana Marisol Abrego-Guandique, Paolino Caputo, Cesare Oliviero Rossi, Giorgia Francesca Saraceno, Maria Cristina Caroleo, Erika Cione and Alessia Fazio
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 493-503; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030031 - 12 Sep 2024
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Kefiran is a heteropolysaccharide that is considered a postbiotic and is obtained by kefir grains fermented in cow’s milk, while little is known about the donkey milk (DM) variety. Postbiotics are recognised as having important human health benefits that are very similar to
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Kefiran is a heteropolysaccharide that is considered a postbiotic and is obtained by kefir grains fermented in cow’s milk, while little is known about the donkey milk (DM) variety. Postbiotics are recognised as having important human health benefits that are very similar to probiotics but without the negative effects associated with their ingestion. Donkey is a monogastric animal, as are humans, and when used as an alternative food for infants who suffer from cow milk protein allergies, DM could therefore display more biocompatibility. In this study, the DM kefiran was extracted by ultrasound from kefir grains cultured in donkey milk and fully characterized for its structural and physicochemical properties by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography- Refractive Index (HPLC-RI), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), Differential Scanning Calorimeters (DSC) and rheological analyses. In addition, tests were conducted on keratinocytes cell lines and human red blood cells to assess the nontoxicity and haemolysis degree of the polymer. The extraction yield of the DM kefiran was 6.5 ± 0.15%. The FT-IR analysis confirmed the structure of the polysaccharide by showing that the stretching of the C-O-C and C-O bonds in the ring, which formed two bands at 1157 and 1071 cm−1, respectively, and the anomeric band at 896 cm−1 indicates the β configuration and vibrational modes of glucose and galactose. Results were confirmed by HPLC-RI analysis indicating that the ratio glucose/galactose was 1:0.87. Furthermore, the SEM analysis showed a porous and homogeneous structure. The rheological analysis confirmed the pseudoplastic nature of the polymer, while the DSC analysis highlighted excellent thermal resistance (324 °C). Finally, DM kefiran was revealed to have biologically acceptable toxicity, showing a haemolytic activity of less than 2% when using fresh human red blood cells and showing no cytotoxicity on human keratinocytes. Therefore, kefiran obtained by DM shows an excellent biocompatibility, establishing it as a promising polymer for bioengineering human tissue for regenerative applications.
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Open AccessReview
Fenugreek Galactomannan and Its Versatile Applications
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Vanya Nalbantova, Niko Benbassat and Cédric Delattre
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 478-492; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030030 - 6 Sep 2024
Abstract
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual, dicotyledonous medicinal plant which belongs to the Leguminosae family, and its leaves and seeds are widely used and cultivated throughout the world. Their widespread utilization is attributed to the great variety of primary and secondary
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Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual, dicotyledonous medicinal plant which belongs to the Leguminosae family, and its leaves and seeds are widely used and cultivated throughout the world. Their widespread utilization is attributed to the great variety of primary and secondary metabolites they contain, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, steroidal saponins, tannins, as well as carbohydrates, in particular galactomannan, which is the focus of the current study. The presence of an equal number of galactose and mannose residues (Gal/Man ratio of 1:1) prevents the formation of hydrogen bonds between the mannose ones. This determines the good solubility of fenugreek galactomannan in cold water, even at low concentrations. The water solubility would be significantly better than that of carob and even slightly higher than that of guar gum, precisely due to their structural characteristics, which contribute to their possible advantages. Moreover, it is a good alternative as an excipient for the development of pharmaceutical dosage forms, as well as in the preparation of food products, affecting not only their structure but also their shelf life. Furthermore, it has promising applications not only in the fields of medicine and pharmaceutics but also offers environmental benefits. All of the above-mentioned factors are of high interest and qualify fenugreek galactomannan as a versatile polysaccharide, which is the reason for summarizing its benefits in this review.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Bioactive Polysaccharides)
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Ultrasound-Assisted Process to Increase the Hydrophobicity of Cellulose from Oat Hulls by Surface Modification with Vegetable Oils
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Gina A. Gil-Giraldo, Janaina Mantovan, Beatriz M. Marim, João O. F. Kishima, Natália C. L. Beluci and Suzana Mali
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 463-477; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030029 - 5 Sep 2024
Abstract
Cellulose obtained from oat hulls by bleaching with peracetic acid was modified, employing an ultrasound method that resulted in an esterification reaction with different vegetable oils (soybean, sunflower, and coconut) to produce modified cellulose (MC) with increased hydrophobicity. MC samples were characterized by
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Cellulose obtained from oat hulls by bleaching with peracetic acid was modified, employing an ultrasound method that resulted in an esterification reaction with different vegetable oils (soybean, sunflower, and coconut) to produce modified cellulose (MC) with increased hydrophobicity. MC samples were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and their wettability and oil and water absorption capacities. FTIR indicated that the reaction occurred with all oils, which was observed by forming a new band associated with ester carbonyl groups at 1747 cm−1. The modification did not affect the crystalline structure or surface morphology of the cellulose. MC samples modified with all oil sources showed a 6 to 9-fold decrease in water absorption capacity, a 3-fold increase in oil absorption capacity, and a higher affinity for nonpolar solvents. The modified samples adsorbed lower amounts of water at a slower rate. Different oil sources did not affect the main properties of MC. The ultrasonication-assisted process was not only effective in modifying cellulose by esterification with vegetable oils but was also an eco-friendly and simple strategy that does not require toxic reagents, providing reassurance of its sustainability.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Polymers from Renewable Resources, 2nd Volume)
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Antihypertensive Amaranth Protein Hydrolysates Encapsulation in Alginate/Pectin Beads: Influence on Bioactive Properties upon In Vitro Digestion
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Dora Elisa Cruz-Casas, Rodolfo Ramos-González, Lilia Arely Prado-Barragán, Cristóbal N. Aguilar, Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera, Anna Iliná, Sandra Cecilia Esparza-González and Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 450-462; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030028 - 5 Sep 2024
Abstract
Protein hydrolysates containing bioactive peptides have emerged as therapeutic agents. However, these peptides may lose this bioactivity under gastrointestinal conditions. Encapsulation in edible biopolymers is a solution to this problem. Protein hydrolysates with ACE-I inhibitory activity, obtained previously, were encapsulated. A 1% solution
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Protein hydrolysates containing bioactive peptides have emerged as therapeutic agents. However, these peptides may lose this bioactivity under gastrointestinal conditions. Encapsulation in edible biopolymers is a solution to this problem. Protein hydrolysates with ACE-I inhibitory activity, obtained previously, were encapsulated. A 1% solution of the biopolymers alginate (AG) and pectin (PC) in various ratios was prepared. The beads formed were evaluated in both wet and dry states for size, roundness, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), encapsulation efficiency, and ACE-I inhibitory activity. Selected samples underwent in vitro digestion, after which peptide release and ACE-I inhibitory activity were determined. Size analysis revealed that increasing the PC content increased the bead size, with 100% PC beads showing total deformation and reduced roundness. TGA indicated that wet beads had lower thermal stability compared to dry beads. The highest encapsulation efficiency (95.57% ± 0.49) was observed with 100% AG beads. The 75% AG 25% PC beads exhibited the highest ACE-I inhibitory activity (97.97% ± 1.01). Encapsulated protein hydrolysates retained their ACE-I inhibitory activity after simulated digestion, whereas non-encapsulated hydrolysates lost their bioactivity. Encapsulation of amaranth protein hydrolysates with AG and PC thus preserves antihypertensive activity even after in vitro digestion.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seaweed Polysaccharides: Innovations in Isolation, Characterization, Chemical Modification and Processing)
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Open AccessArticle
Isolation and Characterization of β-Glucan Containing Polysaccharides from Monascus spp. Using Saccharina japonica as Submerged Fermented Substrate
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Sharmin Suraiya, Won Je Jang, Monjurul Haq and In-Soo Kong
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 435-449; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030027 - 31 Aug 2024
Abstract
Beta-glucan (β-glucan), a naturally occurring complex polysaccharide, has drawn attention for its diverse health benefits, including immune system modulation. β-glucan was extracted from two fungi, Monascus purpureus (Mp) and Monascus kaoliang (Mk), cultured in Saccharina japonica via submerged fermentation. The yield, solubility, total
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Beta-glucan (β-glucan), a naturally occurring complex polysaccharide, has drawn attention for its diverse health benefits, including immune system modulation. β-glucan was extracted from two fungi, Monascus purpureus (Mp) and Monascus kaoliang (Mk), cultured in Saccharina japonica via submerged fermentation. The yield, solubility, total sugar, reducing sugar, protein content, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), in vitro free radical scavenging activity, and cytotoxicity were analyzed. A significant yield of β-glucans, with the contents of 51.30 ± 1.54% in Mp and 44.24 ± 1.18% in Mk was observed on a dry weight basis. Water solubility slightly varied, measuring 36.25 ± 1.14% in Mp and 31.25 ± 0.94% in Mk. Total sugar and reducing sugar content in Mp and Mk derived β-glucans were 114.75 ± 2.54 mg/g and 100.25 ± 1.86 mg/g, 7.38 ± 0.78 mg/g, and 8.39 ± 0.46 mg/g, respectively. FTIR spectra resembled the standard, and TGA confirmed heat stability. XRD patterns indicated that the extracted β-glucans, including the standard one, showed the most prominent diffraction peaks in the lower 2θ range, suggesting similar crystalline phases; however, they differed in crystallinity and degree of amorphous content. SEM images displayed characteristic rough and fibrous shapes and surfaces for extracted β-glucans but it was uniform and of a regular shape in the standard sample. The isolated β-glucans exhibited in vitro free radical scavenging and no cytotoxicity was observed in the MTS assay. Therefore, utilizing S. japonica as a substrate in the fermentation process by Monascus spp. presents a unique opportunity in the production and utilization of β-glucans.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Bioactive Polysaccharides)
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Layer-by-Layer Assembling and Capsule Formation of Polysaccharide-Based Polyelectrolytes Studied by Whispering Gallery Mode Experiments and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy
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Stefan Wagner, Mateusz Olszyna, Algi Domac, Thomas Heinze, Martin Gericke and Lars Dähne
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 422-434; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030026 - 14 Aug 2024
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The layer-by-layer (LbL) assembling of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes was studied using semi-synthetic polysaccharide derivatives, namely the polycations 6-aminoethylamino-6-deoxy cellulose (ADC) and cellulose (2-(ethylamino)ethylcarbamate (CAEC), as well as the polyanion cellulose sulfate (CS). The synthetic polymers poly(allylamine) (PAH) and poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) were employed
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The layer-by-layer (LbL) assembling of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes was studied using semi-synthetic polysaccharide derivatives, namely the polycations 6-aminoethylamino-6-deoxy cellulose (ADC) and cellulose (2-(ethylamino)ethylcarbamate (CAEC), as well as the polyanion cellulose sulfate (CS). The synthetic polymers poly(allylamine) (PAH) and poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) were employed as well for comparison. The stepwise adsorption process was monitored by whispering gallery mode (WGM) experiments and zeta-potential measurements. Distinct differences between synthetic- and polysaccharide-based assemblies were observed in terms of the quantitative adsorption of mass and adsorption kinetics. The LbL-approach was used to prepare µm-sized capsules with the aid of porous and non-porous silica particle templates. The polysaccharide-based capsule showed a switchable permeability that was not observed for the synthetic polymer materials. At ambient pH values of 7, low-molecular dyes could penetrate the capsule wall while no permeation occurred at elevated pH values of 8. Finally, the preparation of protein-loaded LbL-capsules was studied using the combination of CAEC and CS. It was shown that high amounts of protein (streptavidin and ovomucoid) can be encapsulated and that no leaking or disintegration of the cargo macromolecules occurred during the preparation step. Based on this work, potential use in biomedical areas can be concluded, such as the encapsulation of bioactive compounds (e.g., pharmaceutical compounds, antibodies) for drug delivery or sensing purposes.
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Hyperbranched Cellulose for Dye Removal in Aqueous Medium
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Luciano Clécio Brandão Lima, Lucinaldo dos Santos Silva, Fabrícia de Castro Silva, Francisco José Lustosa Ferreira, Maria Gardênnia da Fonseca, Josy Anteveli Osajima and Edson Cavalcanti da Silva Filho
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 399-421; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030025 - 12 Aug 2024
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In recent decades, cellulose (Cel) and its modified forms have emerged as a new class of versatile adsorbents for removing dyes from aqueous solutions. This work reports the immobilization of macromolecules obtained from reactions between ethylenediamine (N) and ethylene sulfide (S) in three
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In recent decades, cellulose (Cel) and its modified forms have emerged as a new class of versatile adsorbents for removing dyes from aqueous solutions. This work reports the immobilization of macromolecules obtained from reactions between ethylenediamine (N) and ethylene sulfide (S) in three molar proportions (1:1, 1:2, and 1:4) on the surface of chlorinated cellulose (Cl-Cel), aiming to increase the adsorption capacity of dyes. The materials obtained (NS-Cel, N2S-Cel, and N4S-Cel) were characterized by elemental analysis, which demonstrated immobilization of macromolecules with a ratio of 12 ethylene sulfides to 1 ethylenediamine in the materials NS-Cel and N4S-Cel and a ratio of 10 ethylene sulfides to 1 ethylenediamine in NS-Cel. Intense C-H stretching bands of CH2 groups at 2900 cm−1 in the FT-IR spectra suggest a large amount of the functional group, corroborating the 13C NMR spectra, which presented a signal at 33 ppm referring to methylene carbons. The materials obtained had excellent performance in removing the dyes studied, with the adsorption capacity of the Remazol yellow GR dye being approximately 24 times greater than the raw material (87.70 ± 2.63 mg g−1) for the best-hyperbranched cellulose N4S-Cel and 3.60 ± 0.18 mg g−1 for Cel, and about ten times higher for the dye Remazol red RB (57.84 ± 1.73 mg g−1) for N4S-Cel compared to previously published work for Cel.
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Open AccessReview
Polysaccharide as a Separation Medium for Gel Electrophoresis
by
Tsutomu Arakawa, Masataka Nakagawa, Chiaki Sakuma, Yui Tomioka, Yasunori Kurosawa and Teruo Akuta
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 380-398; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030024 - 5 Aug 2024
Abstract
Gel electrophoresis and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) are vital techniques in biochemical research, employing gel matrix structures made of polysaccharides or synthetic polymers like polyacrylamide for the analysis and separation of macromolecules. Polysaccharides, such as agarose, offer safer alternatives to acrylamide. Polysaccharide gels,
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Gel electrophoresis and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) are vital techniques in biochemical research, employing gel matrix structures made of polysaccharides or synthetic polymers like polyacrylamide for the analysis and separation of macromolecules. Polysaccharides, such as agarose, offer safer alternatives to acrylamide. Polysaccharide gels, notably agarose, facilitate the analysis and purification of proteins and nucleic acids through a molecular sieving mechanism. Gel electrophoresis for proteins is mainly divided into denaturing and native methods. Denaturing electrophoresis with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) simplifies protein migration but disrupts molecular interactions. Conversely, native gel electrophoresis, without SDS, allows proteins to migrate based on the running pH and the isoelectric point of the proteins, while nucleic acids consistently migrate toward the anode. The electrophoresis of proteins with variable charges presents complexes. This review focuses on the use of polysaccharides, particularly agarose, for native gel electrophoresis, highlighting their applications in separating macromolecules. It also discusses the applications and limitations of agarose gels when used as a matrix for electrophoresis. Such information should help in designing electrophoresis experiments using polysaccharides.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Current Opinion in Polysaccharides)
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Open AccessArticle
Impact of the Three-Dimensional Arrangements of Polyhydroxylated Crosslinkers on the Resulting Properties of Chitosan-Based Hydrogels
by
Gema Díaz Bukvic, Martin Ojeda Henriquez, Agustín Brandon Rodríguez Vannini, María Marta Fidalgo, Andrés Gerardo Salvay, Ezequiel Rossi and María Inés Errea
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 358-379; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030023 - 3 Aug 2024
Abstract
Chitosan was subjected to a crosslinking reaction with three polyhydroxylated diacids (glucaric (GlcA), mannaric (ManA), and mucic (MucA) acids) that only differ in the spatial orientation of their hydroxyl groups. This work aimed to obtain experimental evidence of the impact of the three-dimensional
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Chitosan was subjected to a crosslinking reaction with three polyhydroxylated diacids (glucaric (GlcA), mannaric (ManA), and mucic (MucA) acids) that only differ in the spatial orientation of their hydroxyl groups. This work aimed to obtain experimental evidence of the impact of the three-dimensional arrangement of the crosslinkers on the resulting properties of the products. In all the cases, the products were hydrogels, and their chemical structures were fully elucidated by FT-IR spectroscopy and conductometric titration. Thermogravimetric and morphological studies were also carried out. The specific surface area of all the products was similar and higher than that of native chitosan. Moreover, all hydrogels were characterized in terms of viscoelastic properties and long-term stability under external perturbation. Furthermore, their lead adsorption efficiency and swelling capacity were assessed. Despite the resemblant chemical structure in all the hydrogels, Ch/ManA exhibited the highest lead adsorption capacity, (Ch/ManA: 93.8 mg g−1, Ch/GlcA: 82.9 mg g−1, Ch/MucA: 79.2 mg g−1), while Ch/GlcA exhibited a remarkably higher swelling capacity (i.e., ~30% more than Ch/MucA and ~40% more than Ch/ManA). The results obtained herein evidenced that the selection of the polyhydroxylated crosslinker with the appropriate three-dimensional structure could be crucial to finely adjust the final materials’ features.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications, 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Analysis of the Substituent Distribution in Carboxymethyl-1,4-glucans on Different Structural Levels—An Ongoing Challenge
by
Franziska Steingaß, Anne Adden and Petra Mischnick
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 332-357; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030022 - 2 Aug 2024
Abstract
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Carboxymethylglucans (CMGs) are widely used semisynthetic polyelectrolytes, e.g., for pharmaceuticals. They are produced in heterogeneous processes on activated starch granules or cellulose fibers. In contrast to neutral ether derivatives, a lower DS in the range, commonly between 0.6 and 1.2, is sufficient to
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Carboxymethylglucans (CMGs) are widely used semisynthetic polyelectrolytes, e.g., for pharmaceuticals. They are produced in heterogeneous processes on activated starch granules or cellulose fibers. In contrast to neutral ether derivatives, a lower DS in the range, commonly between 0.6 and 1.2, is sufficient to achieve the water solubility of CM cellulose. The high proportion of unsubstituted domains, which could aggregate and therefore only swell and form gel particles but do not dissolve, places higher demands on the statistical distribution of the substituents. The knowledge of regioselectivity, essential for the interpretation of higher structural-level data, can be obtained by various methods, preferentially by CE/UV after hydrolysis. To study the distribution of substituents at the polymer level by mass spectrometric (MS) analysis, partial random depolymerization is required. Due to the ionic character and acid functionality, all the attempts of the direct depolymerization of CMG and further sample preparation suffered from bias, side reactions, and multiple ion formation in MS. Finally, the transformation of CMGs to the corresponding hydroxyethylglucans (HEGs) by the reduction of the esterified carboxy groups with LiAlH4 opened the window for quantitative oligomer MS analysis. While the CM amyloses were reduced quantitatively, the transformation of the CMC was only about 60% but without the formation of mixed CM/HE ethers.
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Open AccessArticle
Enhancing Gelatine Hydrogel Robustness with Sacran-Aldehyde: A Natural Cross-Linker Approach
by
Maninder Singh, Alisha Debas, Gargi Joshi, Maiko Kaneko Okajima, Robin Rajan, Kazuaki Matsumura and Tatsuo Kaneko
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 320-331; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030021 - 1 Aug 2024
Cited by 1
Abstract
Tunable hydrogels have gained significant attention in the bioengineering field due to their designer preparation approach. Towards this end, gelatine stands out as a promising candidate owing to its desirable attributes, such as biocompatibility, ability to support cell adhesion and proliferation, biodegradability, and
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Tunable hydrogels have gained significant attention in the bioengineering field due to their designer preparation approach. Towards this end, gelatine stands out as a promising candidate owing to its desirable attributes, such as biocompatibility, ability to support cell adhesion and proliferation, biodegradability, and cost-effectiveness. This study presents the preparation of a robust gelatine hydrogel employing sacran aldehyde (SDA) as a natural cross-linker. The resulting SDA-cross-linked gelatine hydrogels (GSDA) display an optimal compressive stress of 0.15 MPa at 50% strain, five times higher than pure gelatine hydrogel. As SDA cross-linking concentration is increased, the swelling capacity of GSDA declines. This decline in swelling capacity, from 80% to 40%, is a result of strong crosslinking of gelatin with SDA. Probing further with FT-IR spectroscopy and SEM at the micron scale unveiled a dual-cross-linking mechanism within the hydrogels. This mechanism encompasses both short- and long-range covalent cross-linking, along with thermo-induced physical cross-linking, resulting in a significant enhancement of the load-bearing capacity of the fabricated hydrogels.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Polysaccharides: Structure and Applications)
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Open AccessReview
Impact of Aureobasidium Species Strain Improvement on the Production of the Polysaccharide Pullulan
by
Thomas P. West
Polysaccharides 2024, 5(3), 305-319; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides5030020 - 29 Jul 2024
Abstract
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This review explores the production of the fungal polysaccharide pullulan by mutants and natural isolates of Aureobasidium species using strain improvement. Pullulan is a neutral polysaccharide gum whose structure is a maltotriose-containing glucan. This polysaccharide gum has applications in the fields of food,
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This review explores the production of the fungal polysaccharide pullulan by mutants and natural isolates of Aureobasidium species using strain improvement. Pullulan is a neutral polysaccharide gum whose structure is a maltotriose-containing glucan. This polysaccharide gum has applications in the fields of food, pharmaceuticals, biomedical and wastewater treatment. The strain improvement of Aureobasidium species has focused on the pullulan production process, including the isolation of strains exhibiting reduced pigmentation, polysaccharide overproduction, the production of pullulan with variable molecular weight, and increased osmotolerant strains promoting pullulan production at high carbon source concentrations and pullulan production on hemicellulosic substrates. The majority of studies have emphasized the isolation of reduced pigmentation and pullulan hyperproducer strains since the goal of large-scale commercial pullulan production is to synthesize non-pigmented polysaccharides. A promising area of strain improvement is the isolation of strains that synthesize authentic pullulan from hemicellulosic substrates. If strain improvement in this area is successful, the goal of commercially producing pullulan at a competitive cost will eventually be achieved.
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