Polysaccharides

Plantain (Musa AAB Simmonds) of the Dominico hartón variety from two Colombian territories (Cauca and Risaralda) with differences in altitude was used to extract the flour and starch from the pulp and peel. The plantain of Cauca origin presented the highest yield in flour extraction. Starch extraction was based on the use of an aqueous solution of sodium metabisulfite, achieving the highest yield in starch extraction (above 80% d.b.) when using a concentration of 1.2% of sodium metabisulfite, highlighting the best performance in the plantain of Risaralda origin. In the characterization of the starches, the granules from the pulp showed a larger size, higher amylose content, lower ash content, lower water absorption and solubility capacity, higher melting enthalpy, and higher crystallinity than those obtained with the starches from the banana peel. The starch from Cauca pulp presented properties characteristic of a structure with higher hardness. Full article

In the present study, exopolysaccharides (EPS-1, EPS-2, and EPS-3) were extracted from Lactobacillus graminis, and their chemical compositions, bioactivities, and cytotoxicity were comprehensively studied. A higher yield was observed for EPS-1 and EPS-2 with 14.38% and 9.24%, respectively. The chemical composition in the samples was studied using FT-IR analysis. The EPS-1 (1 mg/mL) showed higher antioxidant activities with 34.5 ± 6.6% and 93.6 ± 2.3% of DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging, respectively. In the cellular antioxidant assay, the EPS-1 protected oxidative stress-mediated cellular damage in AAPH-treated NIH3T3 cells. In addition, EPS-1 (0.25 mg/mL) treatment augmented the viability of AAPH-stressed RAW264.7 cells (~80%) than AAPH-treated cells (~50%) by reducing the ROS level and associated oxidative damage. Toxicity studies indicated that EPS-1 (1 mg/mL) did not induce notable cytotoxic effects in NIH3T3 cells, RAW264.7 cells, and erythrocytes. Altogether, the findings of this research suggest that L. graminis could be a source of biocompatible polysaccharides with antioxidant properties. Full article

The present study reported, for the first time, the fabrication and characterization of electrospun nanofibers based on arabinoxylans (AXs) alone. The Fourier transform infrared spectrum of ferulated water-extractable AXs recovered from wheat endosperm confirmed the molecule identity. The carbon and oxygen signals in X-ray photoelectron spectrometry (XPS) were recorded for this molecule. The AXs had weight-average molar mass, intrinsic viscosity, radius of gyration, and hydrodynamic radius values of 769 kDa, 4.51 dL/g, 55 nm, and 31 nm, respectively. The calculated AX characteristic ratio and persistence length were 10.7 and 3.2 nm, respectively, while the Mark–Houwink–Sakurada α and K constants were 0.31 and 9.4, respectively. These macromolecular characteristics indicate a molecular random coil structure in the polysaccharide. Using aqueous acetic acid 50% (v/v) as a solvent favored the Taylor cone establishment and the fabrication of electrospun nanofibers. The morphology of nanofibers was revealed by scanning electron microscopy images. Atomic force microscopy analysis of AX nanofibers exposed the material deposition in layers; these nanofibers had an average diameter of 177 nm. These nanofibers could be used as advanced biomaterials for biomedical applications such as wound dressing. Full article

Innovations for separation via membranes are extremely energy-efficient, and through the previous decade, attention to this technology has spiked tremendously. Biopolymers are becoming widely recognized as membrane materials since they are sustainable. Furthermore, the second most common biopolymer, chitin, is the source of chitosan, which has several benefits that make it ideal for the construction of membranes. This review article presents an evaluation of current developments in the utilization of chitosan membranes. The applications of interest in this review are nanofiltration, pervaporation and ion exchange. The chitosan based nanofiltration membranes are comprehensively reviewed with respect to various factors (e.g., solvent, pH resistant, etc.). The development of water permselective, organic permselective, and organic-organic separation films, as well as its permeability and segregation properties, are addressed in pervaporation (PV) section. Full article

The crystallinity of cellulose substrates is a key factor in their processability, as well as an indication of their susceptibility to undergo sensitive reactions (such as enzymatic saccharification) with high yields. FT-IR and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy are useful, reliable, and easy-to-reach solid-state characterization methods for assessing the crystallinity of different cellulose substrates including wood and wood-based materials. Due to their specific methodology, they can be used to analyze not only starting materials and their final products but also intermediates. Data obtained by these methods substantiated the structural changes in cellulose substrates, as well as the alterations that occurred in their supramolecular architectures. The conversion of crystalline cellulose I into amorphous cellulose II during enzymatic saccharification, with or without pre-treatment (solubilization in ILs), was evidenced beyond any reasonable doubt by FT-IR and XRD experimental results. Enzyme hydrolysis rates of the ILs-treated cellulose substrates can be significantly increased, as evidenced by reducing sugar yields. Crystallinity index values for cellulose of different origins (initial, pre-treated with ILs, and hydrolyzed with enzyme, as well as cellulose submitted to one-pot procedure with ILs and enzyme) can be determined using FTIR and X-ray diffraction data and discussed for comparison purposes. The same solid-state characterization methods can be also successfully employed for investigation of surface changes, expressed as cellulose crystallinity, in wood samples before and after impregnation with natural-based products, as well as under biodegradation conditions in soil burial tests. Full article

The aim of this research was to obtain new, ecological products with emulsifying properties based on potato maltodextrins and fatty acids and to prepare stable emulsions with the obtained esters as emulsifiers. The esterification of potato maltodextrin with different degrees of saccharification using oleic acid (model reaction) and free fatty acids from oil hydrolysis in the presence of lipases from Thermomyces lanuginosus and Aspergillus oryzae as biocatalysts was carried out. The reaction yielded products with degrees of substitution (DS) ranging from 0.017 to 1.35. Physicochemical analysis of the obtained products (FT–IR, NMR, morphological studies, and solubility measurements) was carried out. The occurrence of the reaction was confirmed, and the influences of the degree of saccharification of maltodextrin, the type of lipase used, and the reaction conditions on the degree of substitution obtained and the related product properties were evaluated. Oil-in-water emulsions were prepared on the basis of the obtained esters, which were then visually assessed. The lowest creaming index (0.0%) was obtained for the emulsion prepared from low-saccharified maltodextrin ester with DS = 0.038. Full article

This work aimed at replacing per- or poly-fluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-based food-serving containers with wood-based, oil- and grease-resistant food-serving containers. A novel container was developed by laminating wet cellulose nanofibril (CNF) films to both sides of yellow birch wood veneer using a food-grade polyamide–epichlorohydrin additive (PAE) as an adhesive. CNFs significantly improved the wood veneer container’s mechanical strength and barrier properties. The container’s mechanical testing results showed significant increases in flexural strength and modulus of elasticity (MOE) values in both parallel and perpendicular directions to the grain. All formulations of the container showed excellent oil and grease resistance properties by passing “kit” number 12 based on the TAPPI T 559 cm-12 standard. The water absorption tendency of the formulation treated at higher temperature, pressure, and longer press time showed similar performance to commercial paper plates containing PFASs. The developed composite demonstrates superior flexural strength and barrier properties, presenting a sustainable alternative to PFASs in food-serving containers. Both wood and CNFs stand out for their remarkable eco-friendliness, as they are biodegradable and naturally compostable. This unique characteristic not only helps minimize waste but also promotes a healthier environment. If scaled up, these novel containers may present a solution to the oil/grease resistance of bio-based food containers. Full article

New sustainable materials have been developed to replace conventional plastics obtained from non-renewable sources. In this study, cellulose fibres from Posidonia oceanica (PO) were obtained by applying subcritical water extraction and bleaching with hydrogen peroxide or sodium chlorite. The PO fibres were used to obtain cellulose films, chitosan–cellulose composites, and PLA–cellulose laminates. These films were characterised as to their optical properties, mechanical performance, oxygen and water vapour permeability, thermal stability, and microstructure. The cellulose films exhibited low mechanical resistance, with different colouration depending on the degree of delignification. The composites had lower mechanical strength than pure chitosan films. The PO cellulose fibres had a similar, but attenuated, effect when laminated with PLA layers. The fibres improved the oxygen barrier capacity of chitosan films, although this effect only occurred in PLA laminates for cellulose purified with sodium chlorite. In no case did cellulose improve the water vapour barrier of the films compared to pure polymers. The thermal stability was not notably altered by the blending effect, thus reflecting the absence of significant interactions between the fibres and polymer. However, there is a need to improve the functionality of cellulose fibres from PO waste for their incorporation as fillers or laminates in biodegradable food packaging materials. Full article

As a biodegradable material, chitin possesses exceptional physical and chemical properties, making it valuable in various industrial sectors. Compared to chitin, its derivative, chitosan, offers even more versatile applications due to its higher solubility and reactivity. As the key precursor for chitosan production, chitin is typically harvested from shrimp and crab exoskeletons. However, the quest for alternative sources has intensified to reduce reliance on crustacean-derived chitin. Black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens), particularly its puparium, has emerged as a promising alternative, though it is typically considered waste. In this study, we investigated different combinations and sequences of extraction treatments for chitin from the BSF puparium. The results demonstrate that sequential treatments of demineralization (DM), deproteination (DP), and decolorization (DC) produce chitin with the lowest ash, lipid, and protein contents—approximately 1.01%, 1.99%, and 3.01%, respectively, yielding degrees of DM and DP at 94.77% and 92.24%, and a chitin purity of 93.98%. In contrast, combining DP and DC following the DM treatment facilitates partial chitosan transformation with a degree of deacetylation (DD) of 65.90%, offering a direct alternative for producing chitosan without an additional deacetylation process. Full article

Bleeding is a potentially life-threatening emergency that can result in severe complications or death regardless of the cause of bleeding. The development of hemostatic materials has been a long-standing concern for emergency treatment in surgery and combat. In recent years, there have been many reviews on hemostatic materials, but there have been few specific studies about performance requirements and development in recent years on natural polysaccharide-based hemostatic sponge as a type of hemostatic excipient. Currently, natural polysaccharide hemostatic sponge has attracted wide attention due to the enhancement or interaction of various hemostatic mechanisms. These polysaccharide sponges show a high hemostatic effect. In this paper, the application history of natural polysaccharides (chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, cellulose, starch, etc.) as a new generation of hemostatic sponge materials in recent years is reviewed. The design principles and new achievements in polysaccharide-based hemostatic sponge are introduced. Finally, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of polysaccharide hemostatic sponge and prospect the development opportunities and challenges of this material. Full article

Fucoidan is a sulfated fucan marine polysaccharide with potential therapeutic applications, including antibacterial activity and the control of virulence factors associated with quorum sensing. This study investigates the bioactivity of fucoidan derived from the brown algae Ascophyllum nodosum, as well as their fucoidan oligosaccharides (OFuc; <3 kDa), on the growth, motility, biofilm formation, and adhesion of Campylobacter jejuni, the leading cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. The results showed that fucoidan decreased the growth rate of C. jejuni at concentrations greater than 25 µg/mL, while no effect was observed with different concentrations (5–100 µg/mL) of OFuc. Neither compound affected bacterial motility. Both fucoidan and OFuc inhibited abiotic biofilm formation and diminished pathogen adhesion in a concentration-dependent manner. The study also found that C. jejuni recognized the fucoidan molecule through an enzyme-like lectin assay (ELLA) showing a lectin-like adhesin-carbohydrate recognition. Overall, these results suggest the potential of fucoidan from A. nodosum for controlling abiotic biofilm formation in the food industry, and they open new avenues for research into the use of fucoidan as a molecule aimed at blocking infections caused by C. jejuni. Full article

Rejections of commercial bone implants have driven research in the biomaterials field to develop more biocompatible and less cytotoxic alternatives. This study aims to create composites based on oxidized bacterial cellulose (OBC) and strontium apatite (SrAp). These composites were produced through a biomimetic method using a simulated body fluid modified with strontium ions to enhance bioactivity and stabilize apatite within the biomaterial. The incorporation of SrAp into OBC membranes was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy and indicated by the appearance of a peak corresponding to phosphate group elongation (850 cm⁻¹). Quantification of strontium content by atomic absorption spectrometry revealed a concentration of 3359 ± 727 mg·g⁻¹ of Sr adsorbed onto the material surface after 7 days, beyond which no significant increase was observed. Scanning electron microscopy verified biomineralization through structural modifications, and X-ray diffraction showed that despite new peak appearances, the biomineralized membranes retained crystallinity similar to pure samples. The composite also demonstrated high cell viability for mouse osteoblasts and fibroblasts and a low mortality rate in brine shrimp Artemia (approximately 12.94 ± 4.77%). These findings suggest that these membranes have great potential for application in bone tissue engineering. Full article

This study is a comparative investigation of the activity of unloaded and curcumin-loaded oil-in-water emulsion or chitosan-based capsules on rabbit retinal cells (RRC), coronavirus HCoV-OC43, and virus HSV-1 virus in relation to their potential ophthalmologic applications. The carriers are developed by using well-established experimental procedures. The characterization of their surface properties and stability in simulated ocular fluids (tear fluid, aqueous humor, and vitreous humor) is performed using the dynamic light scattering method and UV–vis spectrophotometry. In vitro tests are performed to determine the cytotoxicity and phototoxicity of pure curcumin (CR) and selected CR-containing carriers on RRC. The effect of the unloaded and CR-loaded carriers on the antiviral activity, the behavior of the extracellular virions, and the influence on viral adsorption is evaluated against coronavirus HCoV-OC43 and HSV-1 virus by using suitable microbiological assays. In accordance with the obtained experimental results, the toxicity of carriers containing CR is significantly reduced compared to pure compound and unloaded carriers. Moreover, the activity of the unloaded carriers can be increased several times by incorporating CR. The experimental results demonstrate that the variation in the properties of even one component of the structural composition can provoke the different activity of the carriers. Full article

Introduction. The rise of multidrug resistance in Gram-negative ESKAPE pathogens is a critical challenge for modern healthcare. Colistin (CT), a peptide antibiotic, remains a last-resort treatment for infections caused by these superbugs due to its potent activity against Gram-negative bacteria and the rarity of resistance. However, its clinical use is severely limited by high nephro- and neurotoxicity, low oral bioavailability, and other adverse effects. A promising strategy to improve the biopharmaceutical properties and safety profile of antibiotics is the development of biopolymer-based delivery systems, also known as nanoantibiotics. Objective. The aim of this study was to develop polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) for the oral delivery of CT to overcome its major limitations, such as poor bioavailability and toxicity. Methods. PECs were formulated using chondroitin sulfate (CHS) and a cyanocobalamin–chitosan conjugate (CSB12). Vitamin B12 was incorporated as a targeting ligand to enhance intestinal permeability through receptor-mediated transport. The resulting complexes (CHS-CT-CSB12) were characterized for particle size, ζ-potential, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release profile under simulated gastrointestinal conditions (pH 1.6, 6.5, and 7.4). The antimicrobial activity of the encapsulated CT was evaluated in vitro against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Results. The CHS-CT-CSB12 PECs exhibited a hydrodynamic diameter of 446 nm and a ζ-potential of +28.2 mV. The encapsulation efficiency of CT reached 100% at a drug loading of 200 µg/mg. In vitro release studies showed that approximately 70% of the drug was released within 1 h at pH 1.6 (simulating gastric conditions), while a cumulative CT release of 80% over 6 h was observed at pH 6.5 and 7.4 (simulating intestinal conditions). This release profile suggests the potential use of enteric-coated capsules or specific administration guidelines, such as taking the drug on an empty stomach with plenty of water. The antimicrobial activity of encapsulated CT against P. aeruginosa was comparable to that of the free drug, with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 1 µg/mL for both. The inclusion of vitamin B12 in the PECs significantly improved intestinal permeability, as evidenced by an apparent permeability coefficient (P_app) of 1.1 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s for CT. Discussion. The developed PECs offer several advantages over conventional CT formulations. The use of vitamin B12 as a targeting ligand enhances drug absorption across the intestinal barrier, potentially increasing oral bioavailability. In addition, the controlled release of CT in the intestinal environment reduces the risk of systemic toxicity, particularly nephro- and neurotoxicity. These findings highlight the potential of CHS-CT-CSB12 PECs as a nanotechnology-based platform for improving the delivery of CT and other challenging antibiotics. Conclusions. This study demonstrates the promising potential of CHS-CT-CSB12 PECs as an innovative oral delivery system for CT that addresses its major limitations and improves its therapeutic efficacy. Future work will focus on in vivo evaluation of the safety and efficacy of the system, as well as exploring its applicability for delivery of other antibiotics with similar challenges. Full article

The impact of a glycerol–silicate (GS) plasticizer on the mechanical, thermal and hydrophobic properties pertaining to sodium alginate (NaAlg) and calcium alginate (CaAlg) films were investigated. Spectroscopic and physio-chemical analysis were conducted to evaluate the effects of the GS incorporation. The results determine that both NaAlg and CaAlg films exhibited poor mechanical properties which only improved by increasing the GS loading (up to 25 wt%), after which it declined. CaAlg exhibited the highest tensile strength after 25 wt% GS loading was incorporated. The elongation at break varied, with NaAlg films showing a ~10-fold increase, while the CaAlg films remained relatively unchanged. Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed that GS reduced the onset decomposition temperature of NaAlg films, whereas CaAlg films maintained a greater onset decomposition temperature. The advancing contact angle measurements indicated a nearly linear decrease (from 54° to 39°) in hydrophobicity for the NaAlg films while the hydrophobicity for CaAlg films initially increased from 65° to 74°, and then became more hydrophilic with greater GS loading. These findings highlight the potential of GS plasticization to enhance and tailor alginate film properties, providing insights into the development of sustainable bioplastics with improved mechanical properties. Full article

Chitosan is an attractive material for developing inks for extrusion-based bioprinting of 3D structures owing to its excellent properties, including its mechanical properties and antimicrobial activity when used in wound dressings. A key challenge in formulating chitosan-based inks is to improve its gelation property to ensure reliable printing and the mechanical stability of the printed structures. To address these challenges, this article presents a novel chitosan/oxidized glucomannan composite hydrogel obtained through the combination of Schiff base and phenol crosslinking reactions. The proposed biomaterial forms soft hydrogels through Schiff base crosslinking, which can be further stabilized via visible light-induced phenol crosslinking. This dual-crosslinking approach enhances the printability and robustness of chitosan-based ink materials. The proposed chitosan/oxidized glucomannan hydrogel exhibits excellent extrudability and improved shape retention after extrusion, along with antimicrobial properties against Escherichia coli. Moreover, good cytocompatibility was confirmed in animal cell studies using mouse fibroblast 10T1/2 cells. These favorable features make this hydrogel highly promising for the extrusion-based bioprinting of complex 3D structures, such as tubes and nose-like structures, at a low crosslinker concentration and can expand the prospects of chitosan in bioprinting, providing a safer and more efficient alternative for tissue engineering and other biomedical applications. Full article

Medicinal plants are widely used in Bolivian folk medicine for the treatment of infectious diseases. We have selected one, Clinopodium bolivianum (Benth.) Kuntze, known as “Khoa”, to investigate its potential anti-HIV activity since, traditionally, it has been used to treat other viral infectious diseases. We have carried out an antiviral bioassay-guided fractionation of different extracts of the aerial parts of C. bolivianum. An antiviral crude polysaccharide was obtained, (SBA_S), which is rich in glucose, galactose, mannose, arabinose, xylose, and rhamnose and only has traces of galacturonic acid. SBA_S exhibited antiviral activity with a mechanism of action unrelated to the mannose–lectin DC-SIGN receptors but with a strong viral neutralization activity. In summary, a purified polysaccharide from C. bolivianum has been identified as the main compound responsible for its antiviral activity. SBAs proved to be a neutralizing agent with high antiviral capacity in vitro, so they could be part of new microbicide formulations to prevent HIV transmission. Full article

We developed bio-based chitosan–gelatin films, CHG-LO films, incorporating lavender essential oil (15–26 wt% LO) and oleic acid (33–47 wt% OA) with smooth surfaces and thicknesses of 0.42–0.99 mm. For their manufacture, the nanoemulsions were prepared to possess uniform dispersion and colloidal stability with average droplet sizes of 475–854 nm, polydispersity indices (PDI) of 0.095–0.235, and zeta potentials of 23.7–56.9 mV at 40 °C, where OA served as surfactant and phase change material. The opacities of the CHG-LO films increased by 1.8 to 5.5 times compared to the control group, and their UV-visible light-blocking properties improved. These films demonstrated cyclic thermal buffering character, with heat storage capacities ranging from 14.0 to 36.0 J·g⁻¹ between −26 °C and 20 °C compatible with that of OA. Additionally, they showed reduced water vapor transmission rates and swelling degrees in acidic and neutral environments. The total phenolic contents of the CHG-LO films increased 1.5–4.2 times compared to the control associated with the presence of LO phenolic groups in the structure. DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2,2′–azino–bis(3–ethylbenzothiazoline–6–sulphonic acid)) scavenging activity test results show that the antioxidant properties of these films improved with increasing LO-OA content up to 2.2 and 1.3 times the control, respectively, and also showed antimicrobial properties. The multifunctional CHG-LO films of this study are promising candidates for temperature-sensitive active packaging in food as well as in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Full article

Mexican yuca (Yucca decipiens Trel.) is native to the semi-desert region of north-central Mexico. Based on its medicinal uses, the flour produced from its leaves and stems was evaluated to determine new food uses. The flour was characterized based on granulometry, rheology, texture and functional properties, which were analyzed with the RStudio software. The results indicate that the Water Absorption Index (WAI) of yuca flour (0.11 mL g−¹) is similar to that of wheat flour (0.56 mL g−¹). However, the Fat Absorption Index (FAI) of yuca flour (0.40 mL g−¹) is significantly lower than that of Saltillo Pinto bean flour (1.55 mL g−¹). This suggests that yuca exhibits hydrophilic behavior comparable to that of wheat flour and requires less oil in potential formulations. The expansion capacity of yuca flour is similar to that of wheat flour, demonstrating a gluten-like behavior ideal for food applications that require this structural component. The flour also exhibited notable foaming properties, high stability and low fat content, highlighting its food potential. Fermentation matched the parameters of the Cereal & Grains Association’s physicochemical test methods 56–60; consequently, yuca flours are classified as the same as those produced from soft, weak wheat, supporting their use for fermentation processes. Internal friction values (0.85–0.92) suggest limited flow; however, its high density shows fine granulometry that facilitates the bagging, handling and storage of the flour, complying with the Mexican standards. Full article