Earth

At the global level, numerous reservoirs exhibit a pronounced water degradation. Inadequate land use and climate change effects contribute to freshwater degradation and disrupt the ecosystem balances. This study aimed to evaluate the temporal and spatial effects of the surrounding area on two Portuguese reservoirs: Rabagão and Aguieira. For each reservoir sub-watershed scale, the evolution of land use and soil occupation and the pressures reported over the past decade were analyzed. Additionally, official records of water quality parameters were collected, and water quality was assessed according to the Water Framework Directive (WFD). Both reservoirs show anthropogenic pressure, reflected in the water quality. Rabagão has good water quality, associated with undeveloped lands (47%), agriculture (26%), and one pressure on the aquaculture sector. Aguieira is characterized by high nutrient concentrations, low transparency, and phytoplankton. This is linked to various land uses, including forestry (75%), and agriculture (19%), as well as multiple environmental pressures. Key contributors include urban discharge (27 sites) and water catchments allocated for agricultural purposes (89 sites) and others. The long-term data showed an increase in chlorophyll a concentration, water temperature, and pH values, and a decrease in the concentration of total phosphorus, but higher than the reference value. Additionally, the usage of the surrounding area of the hydrographic basin shows that it is extremely important for water quality and should be included in the WFD. Addressing the problems in the surrounding areas reservoirs is essential to adopting measures that improve water quality, therefore guaranteeing the health of the environment as expected under the One Health concept. Full article

The Cheremskyi Nature Reserve, situated in the Volyn region of Ukraine, constitutes a pivotal element of the European ecological network, distinguished by its distinctive mosaic of peatlands, bogs, and floodplain forests. This study utilizes Sentinel-2 satellite imagery and the Google Earth Engine (GEE) to assess the spatiotemporal patterns of various vegetation indices (NDVI, EVI, SAVI, MSAVI, GNDVI, NDRE, NDWI) from 2017 to 2024. The study aims to select the most suitable combination of vegetation spectral indices for future research. The analysis reveals significant negative trends in NDVI, SAVI, MSAVI, GNDVI, and NDRE, indicating a decline in vegetation health, while NDWI shows a positive trend, suggesting an increased vegetation water content. Correlation analysis underscores robust interrelationships among the indices, with NDVI and SAVI identified as the most significant through random forest feature importance analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA) further elucidates the primary axes of variability, emphasizing the complex interplay between vegetation greenness and moisture content. The findings underscore the utility of multi-index analyses in enhancing predictive capabilities for ecosystem monitoring and support targeted conservation strategies for the sustainable management of the Cheremskyi Nature Reserve. Full article

Considering the global competition to increase food productivity due to the increasing population growth, the use of chemical pesticides has become the quick solution, but by increasing awareness about the serious dangers of wasteful chemicals in various areas of life, it has become necessary to move immediately, albeit gradually, towards safe biological treatments. From this point of view, the use of biochar is one of the trends in reducing soil pollution with chemical pesticides. Therefore, the main objectives of this work are (i) to assess if the application of three pesticides based on imidacloprid, methyl thiophanate, and glyphosate has detectable adverse consequences on soil organisms’ activity and (ii) to evaluate if the addition of biochar modifies the effects of these chemicals. An agricultural soil was amended with different doses of biochar. The treated soil received realistic amounts of currently used pesticides. Samples were stored at 21 °C and 50% WHC (water holding capacity) for a period of 28 days under dark conditions. Oxygen consumption was measured for 12 consecutive hours after the addition of 2.5 g glucose kg⁻¹ as a stimulant for soil organisms. Biomass C was estimated from the difference between the amount of C in 0.5 M K₂SO₄ extracts of CHCl₃ fumigated soil and the extractable C in non-fumigated samples. Specific respiration was computed as the amount of O₂ consumed per unit of Biomass Carbon. The results of this work proved that the tested biochar could modulate the effects produced by the agrochemicals on soil biomass. Full article

This study investigates the estimation of the boundary layer height (PBLH) in Huelva, Spain, in November 2023, using different methods: Richardson number, humidity gradient and refractivity gradient. From the virtual potential profiles of temperature and specific humidity, in the case of daytime PBLH, which method works best in some situations when there are discrepancies between results is discussed. The results are then compared with the PBLH values obtained from the ERA-5 reanalysis. The synoptic analysis shows that the decrease in PBLH in the central weeks of the month is compatible with a thermal inversion by subsidence due to a persistent anticyclonic situation. Regarding air quality, the NO₂ concentrations in the air quality station of Matalascañas, which is a background station, show negative correlations with the PBLH. Full article

Today, the construction sector is largely responsible for climate change and global warming. The industry generates the largest carbon footprint and is also one of the least digitized industries in national economies. Faced with the challenge of reducing this carbon footprint, BIM is becoming an essential tool for building digital twins, which in turn makes it possible to calculate and track the carbon footprint over time for designed, constructed, and existing buildings. Semantically rich databases such as BIM make it possible to record the past, present, and future states of buildings and infrastructure facilities. To date, primary research using the free and popular UrbanBIM tool has been conducted on ready-made models, e.g., a previously prepared piece of space. In this secondary study, a specific pre-designed shell building in the BIM environment was examined, and the embedded carbon footprint was calculated for it. The calculated result of 76.35 tons of CO₂ provides an overview of the solutions used and an analysis of the various elements in terms of their environmental impact. The results of the study indicate a growing need to automate the modeling of building information for analysis and simulation, and then to further manage the information. The paper also identifies limitations and presents future research directions for carbon footprint calculation and tracking. Full article

The East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) is a critical component of the Earth’s climate system that brings substantial seasonal precipitation to China, contributing over 30 percent of summer half-year’s precipitation. Agriculture critically depends on the monsoon’s timing and precipitation, but the effects of climate change on its regional configuration remain poorly understood. We analyzed daily precipitation time series from 145 observation stations in eastern China to quantify the initial and final dates of the rainband steady phase and detect regional variations in monsoon duration and intensity from 1960 to 2017. Monsoon rainband precipitation declined until the mid-1980s, increased from the mid-1980s to 1998, and generally stabilized after that. During the weakening period, the rainband tended to reach mainland China earlier and to take longer to progress from south to north; those changes reversed during the strengthening period. When the EASM weakened, precipitation decreased in the north and south but not in the lower Yangtze and Huaihe river basins of East-Central China. When the EASM strengthened, precipitation increased in all regions, with changes in extreme precipitation generally greater than the changes in overall precipitation. Overall, the moisture imbalance between regions has intensified, reinforcing the pattern of “southern floods, northern droughts” in China. Full article

The mineral extraction industry is vital for nations’ economic growth, as it provides raw materials for various industries. Implementing sustainable mining practices in this sector can contribute to its long-term growth and stability. However, Pakistan lacks a well-defined sustainability assessment framework for mining, leaving a critical gap in research and practice. Existing internationally developed frameworks are not directly applicable, as they were designed for contexts where the mining industry predominantly uses mechanized operations. In contrast, Pakistan’s extraction process relies heavily on manual methods, making it necessary to develop a context-specific framework. A fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was employed to prioritize these indicators and sub-indicators for the sustainability assessment of Pakistan’s mineral industry. The findings of this study highlight that the environmental dimension ranks as the highest priority, followed by social and economic dimensions. Among the environmental indicators, pollution and smart technologies each received a weight of 0.40, which was also the case for the social indicator of discrimination and nepotism, as well as the economic indicators of GDP growth and wealth creation. Furthermore, the results suggest that the extensive use of smart technologies for pollution control is a key factor in fostering environmental sustainability. Full article

The Anthropocene is a concept that highlights the profound changes humans have made to nearly every aspect of the Earth. It serves as a compelling narrative that challenges us to examine public perceptions and interests regarding human–nature interactions in an integrated way. These interactions are widespread but can vary significantly over time, across cultures and under different economic conditions, making them difficult to monitor effectively on a large scale. Recent advancements in digital technology, such as the ability to track online searches through tools, like Google Trends-Glimpse, and the near real-time monitoring of news broadcasts via the GDELT Project, present new opportunities. These tools can analyze data in multiple languages around the world, encouraging innovative approaches to integrate the diverse and complex information generated within this multi-language, multi-concept, and varied time-scale environment of human activity and beliefs. We propose a transformed version of Markowitz’s multi-asset optimization theory that encompasses over 5.5 billion people, several languages, and concepts since 2004. This approach is a functional ensemble where ecology and economics intersect, at least mechanistically. Our findings indicate that while there is a general increase in people’s interest in Anthropocene-related issues, significant differences exist across cultures. We also identify several sources of data noise and evidence that interfere with the overall methodology. Addressing these issues in future research will help to extend the validity of our approach, especially if it increases interest in conservation culturomics. Full article

The adverse effects of climate change, which are associated with the rise in greenhouse gases, impact all nations worldwide. In this context, tropical forests play a critical role in carbon sequestration. However, the significant anthropogenic pressure on these forests contributes to accelerated deforestation and a decrease in their capacity to regulate the climate. This study uses a comprehensive review of 176 published scientific articles and reports to assess the carbon sequestration capacity of rubber plantations, comparing their effectiveness with that of natural tropical forests. The findings are largely consistent and indicate that agricultural systems, such as rubber plantations, which were not traditionally associated with carbon sequestration, play a significant role in this area. Rubber plantations present a complementary alternative to the rapid deforestation of tropical forests, with the capacity to sequester substantial amounts of carbon. The range of carbon storage potential for rubber plantations, spanning from 30 to over 100 tons per hectare, rivals that of natural tropical forests, which can store over 300 tons per hectare. Furthermore, rubber plantations are notable for their indirect carbon sequestration potential. By providing a sustainable source of latex and wood, and thus income, they can reduce the pressure on natural tropical forests. However, challenges remain, particularly concerning sustainable management and the integration of rubber plantations into sustainable tropical forest management strategies. This analysis focuses on the opportunities and challenges of rubber plantations as an offset solution for carbon sequestration. It highlights the prospects for effectively integrating these plantations into sustainable tropical forest management policies. Full article

The Urban Heat Island’s (UHI) effect intensifies thermal discomfort for urban communities, increasing energy requirements. This study assesses the incorporation of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) into building envelopes to reduce Urban Heat Island (UHI) impacts in the Trichy urban area, characterised by a dry-summer tropical savanna environment. To evaluate energy efficiency and indoor temperature regulation, simulations were conducted using Design Builder and Climate 6.0 software. The results show that overall room electricity consumption decreased from 480 kWh to 380 kWh, demonstrating the energy-saving benefits of the modifications. Overall energy consumption was reduced to 271.9 kWh/m²/year from 312.23 kWh/m²/year in the base case, a 13% decrease, equating to 40.33 kWh/m²/year in energy savings. The payback period for PCM installation was predicted to be around 30.64 years. These results show that PCM-enhanced building envelopes reduce UHI effects and improve thermal comfort and energy efficiency, making them a feasible, sustainable urban development strategy. Full article

This study aimed to evaluate the role of trees outside forests on agricultural land (TOF-AL) in preserving the initial aboveground biomass (AGB) of forests within the agricultural landscape of Mongala province in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In 2024, tree inventories were conducted over four months in the forests and agricultural lands of Mongala province to analyse AGB. The effects of artisanal logging and charcoal production activities on the AGB conservation rate were considered. This study indicates that 78.3% of the trees encountered in agricultural lands were large-diameter trees (diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 60 cm). In forest areas, large-diameter trees accounted for 55.9% of tree density. The average AGBs are 66.8 Mg ha⁻¹ for TOF-AL and 373.5 Mg ha⁻¹ for forest trees. The AGB of TOF-AL accounts for 17.9% of the AGB of the total forest trees. The AGB conservation rates vary by region, with Lisala having the highest at 22.1%, Bumba the lowest at 11.2%, and Bongandanga at 20.5%. Artisanal logging and charcoal production reduce the AGB conservation rate of TOF-AL. The AGB conservation rate is positively correlated with the distances to major cities. These results prove that conserving trees in agricultural landscapes can reduce the AGB losses associated with slash-and-burn agriculture and contribute to mitigating climate change effects. Full article

The lack of access to centralized technologies and economic resources in rural communities makes wastewater management a critical challenge. Decentralized systems such as constructed wetlands offer sustainable solutions by leveraging natural processes for effluent treatment. However, their success and sustainability require active community participation. Currently, there is little evidence of community involvement in the implementation, maintenance, and management of constructed wetlands. Existing strategies for community collaboration in environmental and sanitation projects were analyzed through a literature review covering research conducted in the last 20 years. Only peer-reviewed research in English and Spanish was considered. Based on the findings, a triple helix model integrating academia, government, and society is proposed, compiling the most functional strategies from initial awareness raising to maintenance and dissemination. A case study of community participation is presented under this approach in the Salvador Díaz Mirón rural community, Veracruz, Mexico. The results of this study provide key information for effective strategies designed to manage constructed wetlands, emphasizing that their success depends on both the technology and the genuine commitment of communities to their operation and long-term sustainability. Furthermore, these findings can serve as a reference for decision-makers and project planners seeking to integrate participatory models into decentralized sanitation and water resource conservation. Full article

The concept of nature-based solutions (NBS) is widely promoted as an approach to effectively counteract climate change and land degradation (LD) as well as simultaneously add environmental and socio-economic benefits. To have a worldwide impact from NBS, it is important to consider potential land and soil resources at various scales, including administrative units (e.g., country, state, county, etc.). Nature-based solutions are considered by many United Nations (UN) initiatives, including the Paris Agreement and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Currently, there is no consensus on how to define NBS and their indicators. The innovation of this study is that it defines and evaluates soil- and land-based NBS potential while suggesting indicators for land- and soil-based NBS using the contiguous United States of America (USA) as an example. This study defines potential land for NBS as the sum of the individual satellite-identified areas of barren, shrub/scrub, and herbaceous land covers, which are linked to climate and inherent soil quality (SQ), so that NBS could be implemented without changing other land uses. The potential soil for NBS, based on SQ, is a subset of land available for potential NBS. As of 2021, anthropogenic LD affected 2,092,539.0 km² in the contiguous USA, with 928,618.0 km² (15.1% of the contiguous US area) of actual potential land for NBS. The contiguous USA had a negative balance between anthropogenic LD and actual potential land for NBS to compensate for anthropogenic LD of −1,163,921.0 km². Thirty-seven states also exhibited a negative balance for LD compensation with Iowa having the worst balance of −124,497.0 km². Many states with positive anthropogenic LD and NBS balances showed that most of the potential NBS land was of low SQ and, therefore, may not be suitable for NBS. Planning for NBS should involve a feasibility analysis of “nationally determined NBS” (NDNBS) through site and context-specific NBS. Full article

The changes in frequency and intensity of rainfall, variation in temperature, increasing extreme weather events, and rising greenhouse gas emissions can together have a varying impact on food grain production, which then leads to significant impacts on food security in the future. The purpose of this study is to quantify how maize productivity might be affected due to climate change in Southern India. The present study examines how the projected changes to the northeast monsoon will affect maize yield in Tamil Nadu during the rabi season, which spans from September to December, by using a three-step methodology. Firstly, global climate models that accurately represent the large-scale features of the mean monsoon were chosen. Secondly, baseline and future climate data were extracted from the selected global models and the baseline data were compared with observations. Thirdly, the panel data regression model was fitted with the India Meteorological Department’s (IMD) observed climate data to generate the baseline coefficients and projected the maize production using future climate data generated from the global climate model. The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) of RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 were used from two global climate model outputs, namely GFDL_CM3 and HadGEM2_CC, to predict the climate change variability on maize yields during the middle (2021–2050) and the end (2071–2100) of this century. The maize yield is predicted to increase by 3 to 5.47 per cent during the mid-century period and it varies from 7.25 to 14.53 per cent during the end of the century for the medium- (RCP4.5) and high-emission (RCP8.5) climate change scenarios. The maize grain yield increasing during the future periods indicated that the increase in rainfall and temperature during winter in Southern India reduced the possibility of a negative impact of temperature on the maize yield. Full article

Remote sensing technologies are essential for monitoring crop development and improving agricultural management. This study investigates the automation of Sentinel-2 satellite data processing to enhance wheat growth monitoring and provide actionable insights for smallholder farmers. The objectives include (i) analyzing vegetation indices across phenological stages to refine crop growth monitoring and (ii) developing a cost-effective user-friendly web application for automated Sentinel-2 data processing. The methodology introduces the “Area Under the Curve” (AUC) of vegetation indices as an independent variable for yield forecasting. Among the indices examined (NDVI, EVI, GNDVI, LAI, and a newly developed RE-PAP), GNDVI and LAI emerged as the most reliable predictors of wheat yield. The findings highlight the importance of the Tillering to the Grain Filling stage in predictive modeling. The developed web application, integrating Python with Google Earth Engine, enables real-time automated crop monitoring, optimizing resource allocation, and supporting precision agriculture. While the approach demonstrates strong predictive capabilities, further research is needed to improve its generalizability. Expanding the dataset across diverse regions and incorporating machine learning and Natural Language Processing (NLP) could enhance automation, usability, and predictive accuracy. Full article

Wetlands play a vital role in ecosystem sustainability by regulating atmospheric temperature and enhancing human comfort levels. This study aims to evaluate the temperature regulation function of the Nawabganj Wetland, Uttar Pradesh (India), a Ramsar site designated in January 2020, located in a semi-arid region vulnerable to increasing heat waves. The primary objective is to assess the wetland’s influence on microclimatic conditions and human thermal comfort across different seasons. Field surveys were conducted to collect temperature, humidity, wind speed, and vegetation data over three consecutive days in each season: 15–17 May 2019 (pre-monsoon), 12–14 August 2019 (monsoon), and 5–7 October 2019 (post-monsoon). The human comfort index was calculated using field data, while vegetation density and frequency were analyzed based on seasonal variations using the quadrant method. The results indicate that the wetland significantly contributes to local temperature reduction and improved comfort levels. Vegetation plays a crucial role in amplifying this cooling effect, particularly during summer when temperatures range from an average low of 23 °C to a high of 40 °C. In winter, temperatures vary between an average low of 6 °C and a high of 22 °C, with a consistently high humidity level of approximately 94%, further influencing microclimatic conditions. The extent of weed cover varied between 10% and 60% from December to May, reflecting seasonal fluctuations in water levels and wetland health. The study highlights the necessity of effective water and vegetation management, especially during summer, to sustain the wetland’s cooling capacity. Integrating wetland-based strategies into urban planning can enhance environmental sustainability, mitigate climate extremes, and improve human well-being in rapidly urbanizing regions. Full article

The climate of the south of Brazil is characterized by northern winds in a hegemonic way for the transfer of moisture. Thus, the goal here is to verify the impact of the meridional water vapor transport on the rainfall of the Mirim–São Gonçalo Watershed (MSGW), located in the extreme south of Brazil and essential for regional development. The study is based on the precipitation data from MSGW weather stations and ERA5 reanalysis data for the period 1981–2020, which allowed the analysis of the interactions between different climatological variables. The water vapor transport was analyzed using the vertically integrated water vapor flux (VIVF). Coefficients were obtained according to the VIVF values in two locations placed between the Amazon basin and southern Brazil, namely in Bolivia and Paraguay. The results show that the MSGW is directly impacted by moisture transport from the north in all seasons, and this transport is most significant at the 850 hPa level. In addition, the moisture and rainfall in the MSGW are also influenced by changes in the magnitude and direction of this flow, with an increase in transport in periods of El Niño, especially during spring. Therefore, the study brings insights into how changes in tropical South American climate, through a cascading effect, may affect the Mirim–São Gonçalo Watershed development in the middle latitudes from changes in the meridional water vapor transport, highlighting the importance of studying the tropical and extratropical interactions in South America for the MSGW management and sustainable development. Full article

A recent review of species distribution modelling (SDM) published in Earth contains much useful information. However, the introductory paragraphs lack basic information about the first SDM package called BIOCLIM, which became available in January 1984. For example, BIOCLIM-related advances underpinned the development of the most used SDM variables and data. The first SDM climate change studies published in 1988 highlighted the importance of ex situ and native distribution data. This brief note highlights the importance of the early SDM work and its continuing relevance. Full article

This study applies a systems analysis to further our understanding of the many pathways linking climate stress to human (im)mobility and interpersonal violence via natural resource stress within eight countries (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan) across the Sahel region. To illustrate the multiple pathways within the climate–(im)mobility–violence–health nexus, contextual and conceptual systems maps were drawn out based on secondary qualitative data from 24 peer-reviewed journal articles selected from a search result of 394 publications. Even though the geography, environment, socio-political context, traditions, and cultural history were highly diverse, the overarching factors that determined people’s (im)mobility and health outcomes, in association with natural resource stress and violence, were very similar. These vulnerability pathways included gendered immobility, interpersonal conflict, and lack of social protection, which provide important lessons and offer tangible opportunities for policy interventions. The vulnerability pathways often eroded access to natural resources and positive (im)mobility and (mental) health outcomes, which ended up entrapping people in extended cycles of violence and exploitation—especially certain intersectional positions and disadvantaged groups (whether within a household, society, or country). Full article