Molecules

17 pages, 854 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Coexisting Copper and Zinc on the Adsorption and Migration of Sulfadiazine in Soda Saline–Alkali Wetland Soils: A Simulation Approach

by Wencong Yang, Xia Wu, Wenyue Shao, Nana Luo and Jia Zhou

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010189 (registering DOI) - 5 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the adsorption and migration of sulfadiazine (SDZ) in soda saline–alkali soils under Cu/Zn co-pollution using equilibrium adsorption and soil column experiments. Freundlich and Langmuir isothermal models, combined with Hydrus-1D two-site modeling, revealed concentration-dependent interactions. Low Cu (10–100 mg kg⁻¹ [...] Read more.

This study investigates the adsorption and migration of sulfadiazine (SDZ) in soda saline–alkali soils under Cu/Zn co-pollution using equilibrium adsorption and soil column experiments. Freundlich and Langmuir isothermal models, combined with Hydrus-1D two-site modeling, revealed concentration-dependent interactions. Low Cu (10–100 mg kg⁻¹) and Zn (10–100 mg kg⁻¹) enhanced SDZ adsorption via charge regulation and complexation, while high concentrations (300 mg kg⁻¹) suppressed adsorption through competitive adsorption and hydroxide precipitation. Synergistic Cu-Zn coexistence further reduced adsorption to 3.035 mg kg⁻¹. Freundlich modeling (R² = 0.922–0.995) outperformed Langmuir, confirming adsorption site heterogeneity. Column experiments showed Cu (300 mg kg⁻¹) and Zn (300 mg kg⁻¹) accelerated SDZ migration (peaks 0.93–0.94), delaying breakthrough versus Br⁻. Hydrus-1D simulations (R² ≥ 0.915, RMSE < 0.1) effectively quantified nonlinear dynamics between instantaneous adsorption sites (f = 0.101–0.554) and metal concentrations. Results demonstrate heavy metals critically regulate antibiotic fate via concentration-dependent mechanisms in saline–alkali ecosystems. Full article

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20 pages, 2855 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Antioxidant and Flavor of Xuanwei Ham Bone Hydrolysates via Ultrasound and Microwave Pretreatment: A Backpropagation Artificial Neural Network Model Prediction

by Xin Chen, Xianchao Feng, Xingwei Wang, Nianwen Zhang, Yuxia Jin, Jianxin Cao, Xuejiao Wang and Chaofan Guo

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010188 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to produce the hydrolysates of Xuanwei ham bone using enzymatic hydrolysis assisted by microwave and ultrasound pretreatment. A back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) model was utilized to predict the optimal conditions, which involved 15 W/g bone for 15 min [...] Read more.

This study aimed to produce the hydrolysates of Xuanwei ham bone using enzymatic hydrolysis assisted by microwave and ultrasound pretreatment. A back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) model was utilized to predict the optimal conditions, which involved 15 W/g bone for 15 min of ultrasound pretreatment and 5 W/g bone for 30 min of microwave pretreatment, achieving the highest degree of hydrolysis (DH). The model predicted a DH of 27.69, closely aligning with the experimentally measured actual DH of 28.33. DPPH radical scavenging and TBARS demonstrated that hydrolysates prepared by ultrasound combined microwave pretreatment (UMH) exhibited the highest antioxidant activity and significantly inhibited lipid oxidation. GC-MS analysis revealed that the UMH showed removal of bitter volatile flavor compounds, such as o-Cresol and m-Cresol, the retention of aromatic volatile compounds, such as 2-pentylfuran, formation of new aromatic volatile compounds such as 3-methylbutanal, and the reduction in certain aldehyde and ketone compounds. Pearson correlation analysis elucidated that the reduction in aldehyde and ketone compounds was positively linked to the enhanced antioxidant capacity of UMH. The results obtained hold substantial significance for enhancing the added value of Xuanwei ham within the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Transformations and Analysis in Food: Nutrition, Flavor Compounds, and Microbiological Research)

26 pages, 4087 KB

Open AccessReview

Oxime Esters as Efficient Initiators in Photopolymerization Processes

by Monika Dzwonkowska-Zarzycka, Alicja Balcerak-Woźniak and Janina Kabatc-Borcz

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010187 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

The development of new photoinitiators for photocurable systems has gained increasing interest in response to regulatory and environmental requirements, including efficient absorption in the UV/Vis range and reduced toxicity. Among emerging light-sensitive compounds, oxime esters have attracted growing attention as efficient radical photoinitiators. [...] Read more.

The development of new photoinitiators for photocurable systems has gained increasing interest in response to regulatory and environmental requirements, including efficient absorption in the UV/Vis range and reduced toxicity. Among emerging light-sensitive compounds, oxime esters have attracted growing attention as efficient radical photoinitiators. In this paper, five series of oxime esters based on carbazole, coumarin, carbazole–coumarin, phenothiazine, and triphenylamine scaffolds were described. Their high performance in photopolymerization processes was presented, demonstrating their ability to act as both type I and type II photoinitiators, as confirmed by high monomer conversion degrees. These data highlight oxime esters as versatile photoinitiating systems and provide a basis for further structural optimization aimed at improving water solubility and enabling comprehensive cytotoxicity assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Science and Technology of Polymeric Blends, Composites, and Nanocomposites)

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21 pages, 1029 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Pyrrole Heterocyclic Derivatives as Selective MAO-B Inhibitors and Neuroprotectors

by Maya Georgieva, Martin Sharkov, Emilio Mateev, Alexandrina Mateeva and Magdalena Kondeva-Burdina

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010186 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

Novel pyrrole-based derivatives were synthesized in high purity and yields (52–89%), with 17i and 17j displaying selective MAO-B inhibition (50–60%), comparable to Selegiline, and negligible MAO-A activity. In rat brain subcellular fractions, both compounds showed low intrinsic neurotoxicity at 100 μM while exerting [...] Read more.

Novel pyrrole-based derivatives were synthesized in high purity and yields (52–89%), with 17i and 17j displaying selective MAO-B inhibition (50–60%), comparable to Selegiline, and negligible MAO-A activity. In rat brain subcellular fractions, both compounds showed low intrinsic neurotoxicity at 100 μM while exerting significant neuroprotective and antioxidant effects under 6-OHDA, t-BuOOH, and Fe²⁺/ascorbate-induced stress. Mechanistic studies indicate dual protection via reactive oxygen species scavenging and preservation of reduced glutathione, with mitochondria and microsomes being the most responsive compartments. The performed in silico analysis revealed no general toxicity alerts, though hydrazine groups classify the compounds as contact allergens, and the furan ring in 17i poses hepatotoxic and carcinogenic risks. Metabolic predictions suggest ester hydrolysis at the pyrrole ring as the main biotransformation pathway. Overall, 17i and 17j are promising lead compounds for developing therapeutics targeting oxidative stress-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, supporting further in vivo studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Synthesis and Biological Activity of Novel Derivatives Based on Five-Membered Heterocyclic Scaffolds and Their Intermediates, 3rd Edition)

14 pages, 594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enantioselective Total Synthesis of Daedaleanol B from (+)-Sclareolide

by Irene Moreno-Gutiérrez, Sonia Berenguel-Gómez, María José Cánovas-Aragón, José Luis Guil-Guerrero, Tarik Chileh-Chelh, Manuel Muñoz-Dorado, Miriam Álvarez-Corral and Ignacio Rodríguez-García

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010185 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

Daedaleanol B is a drimane-derived merosesquiterpenoid isolated from the brown-rot fungus Daedalea incana. Herein, we report its first enantioselective total synthesis from commercially available (+)-sclareolide. A one-pot transformation afforded 11-acetoxy drimane-8α-ol, which was saponificated and selectively esterified with enantiopure L-pyroglutamic acid to [...] Read more.

Daedaleanol B is a drimane-derived merosesquiterpenoid isolated from the brown-rot fungus Daedalea incana. Herein, we report its first enantioselective total synthesis from commercially available (+)-sclareolide. A one-pot transformation afforded 11-acetoxy drimane-8α-ol, which was saponificated and selectively esterified with enantiopure L-pyroglutamic acid to give crystalline hydroxy-daedaleanol. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction of this intermediate, together with the known configuration of the chiral starting materials, enabled assignment of the absolute configuration of the daedaleanol B framework. Final elimination provided daedaleanol B, whose NMR data matched those reported for the natural product. Both hydroxy-daedaleanol and daedaleanol B exhibited time- and concentration-dependent antiproliferative effects in HT-29 colorectal cancer cells, with higher activity observed for daedaleanol B. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Products Chemistry)

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27 pages, 1529 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Nutraceutical Properties of Vicia faba L: LC-ESI-HR-MS/MS-Based Profiling of Ancient Faba Bean Varieties and Their Biological Activity

by Francesca Fantasma, Gilda D'Urso, Alessandra Capuano, Ester Colarusso, Michela Aliberti, Francesca Grassi, Maria Chiara Brunese, Gabriella Saviano, Vincenzo De Felice, Gianluigi Lauro, Alfonso Reginelli, Maria Giovanna Chini, Agostino Casapullo, Giuseppe Bifulco and Maria Iorizzi

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010184 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

Vicia faba L. is a widely cultivated legume known to contain numerous specialised metabolites. In this study, the seed coats and cotyledons of two ancient V. faba L. varieties, historically consumed in southern Italy and distinguished by black and purple seed coats, were [...] Read more.

Vicia faba L. is a widely cultivated legume known to contain numerous specialised metabolites. In this study, the seed coats and cotyledons of two ancient V. faba L. varieties, historically consumed in southern Italy and distinguished by black and purple seed coats, were extracted using 80% methanol and 80% ethanol. Extracts were analysed for total polyphenol, flavonoid and proanthocyanidin contents, and antioxidant activity using DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. The purple seed coats exhibited the highest levels of phenolics and antioxidant capacity, exceeding those of black seed coats. Next, liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-HR-MS) was used to characterise the bioactive metabolites in both seed coats and cotyledons. The purple variety showed a higher phytochemical content, with a greater level of flavonoids and proanthocyanidins in methanolic extract. Furthermore, the purple seed coat exhibited in vitro anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH), a key enzyme in the arachidonic acid cascade, with an IC₅₀ of 31.51 ± 1.16 µg/µL. Elemental analysis was performed for both varieties to assess their nutritional value. Specifically, the purple seed coats were found to represent a valuable source of bioactive compounds and micronutrients, highlighting their potential applications in nutraceutical, cosmetic, and food supplement sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Food Compounds and Their Health Benefits)

16 pages, 4277 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reactivity of Antibodies Immobilized on Gold Nanoparticles: Fluorescence Quenching Study

by Dmitriy V. Sotnikov, Andrey S. Agapov, Anatoly V. Zherdev and Boris B. Dzantiev

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010183 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

Antibodies labeled with gold nanoparticles are widely used in analytical systems. Consequently, the choice of methods for producing such conjugates requires a precise determination of the retained reactivity of the antibodies. Existing methods give highly variable results, necessitating new, simple, and accurate approaches. [...] Read more.

Antibodies labeled with gold nanoparticles are widely used in analytical systems. Consequently, the choice of methods for producing such conjugates requires a precise determination of the retained reactivity of the antibodies. Existing methods give highly variable results, necessitating new, simple, and accurate approaches. This study demonstrates how a fluorescein (FL) and anti-FL antibody pair can be used to comparatively evaluate conjugation conditions. The method is based on the quenching of fluorescein emission after binding to antibodies, enabling real-time monitoring of interactions in the reaction medium. Using this approach, we compared a series of conjugates of gold nanoparticles (average diameter 24 nm) and anti-FL antibodies that were obtained with antibody concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 μg/mL during the conjugation. The proportion of antibodies that retained their reactivity varied from 11% to 58%. We also estimated the blocking of the conjugates’ surfaces by two widely used reagents, bovine serum albumin and mercapto polyethylene glycol. It was found that the former provides better retention of antigen-binding activity of immobilized antibodies. The difference between these two kinds of preparations is most pronounced—reaching up to a twofold change—at lower antibody densities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nano-Functional Materials for Sensor Applications—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Cobalt Hydroxychloride and Its Application as a Catalyst in the Condensation of Perimidines

by Cássio Siqueira, Gabriela R. Borges, Fernanda S. Portela, Maria E. Miks, Felipe F. Marques, Gleison A. Casagrande, Sumbal Saba, Rafael Marangoni, Jamal Rafique and Giancarlo V. Botteselle

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010182 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

Herein, we report the synthesis, characterization, and catalytic evaluation of cobalt hydroxide chloride [Co₂(OH)₃Cl] in the solvent-free synthesis of 2-substituted 2,3-dihydroperimidines. The presented method aligns with several green chemistry principles, offering operational simplicity, purification by recrystallization, no by-product formation, [...] Read more.

Herein, we report the synthesis, characterization, and catalytic evaluation of cobalt hydroxide chloride [Co₂(OH)₃Cl] in the solvent-free synthesis of 2-substituted 2,3-dihydroperimidines. The presented method aligns with several green chemistry principles, offering operational simplicity, purification by recrystallization, no by-product formation, high yields (64–99%), and short reaction times. A total of 16 dihydroperimidines were synthesized to demonstrate substrate scope versatility. Additionally, the catalyst was successfully recycled and reused in multiple cycles without significant loss. Its robustness was further confirmed by gram-scale synthesis, achieving an 89% yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heterogeneous Catalysis for Sustainability and Carbon-Neutrality)

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22 pages, 4932 KB

Open AccessArticle

Poly(levodopa)-Modified β-(1 → 3)-D-Glucan Hydrogel Enriched with Triangle-Shaped Nanoparticles as a Biosafe Matrix with Enhanced Antibacterial Potential

by Anna Michalicha, Vladyslav Vivcharenko, Anna Tomaszewska, Magdalena Kulpa-Greszta, Barbara Budzyńska, Dominika Fila, Judit Buxadera-Palomero, Agnieszka Krawczyńska, Cristina Canal, Dorota Kołodyńska, Anna Belcarz-Romaniuk and Robert Pązik

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010181 (registering DOI) - 3 Jan 2026

Abstract

Biomaterials derived from natural-origin polymers often lack the desired functionality and additional features, such as antibacterial properties, which could be beneficial in the design of modern wound dressings. Our research aimed to fabricate biosafe antibacterial dressings through the modification of curdlan-based hydrogels with [...] Read more.

Biomaterials derived from natural-origin polymers often lack the desired functionality and additional features, such as antibacterial properties, which could be beneficial in the design of modern wound dressings. Our research aimed to fabricate biosafe antibacterial dressings through the modification of curdlan-based hydrogels with triangle-shaped silver nanoparticles (AgTNPs) and poly(L-DOPA) (PL). The prepared hydrogels, including physicochemical, structural, biological, and antibacterial assessments, were thoroughly characterized. All formulations were confirmed to be non-toxic toward eukaryotic cells. The presence of PL in the hydrogels significantly reduced mortality in the zebrafish larvae model, highlighting the improved biocompatibility of the hydrogels. The three-component hydrogel (CUR-PL-AgT) demonstrated a high antibacterial effectiveness against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Additionally, the same three-component material outperformed a hydrogel containing only AgTNPs in promoting blood clot formation. Furthermore, PL enhanced the heat generating capability of hydrogels, showing their potential in medical applications where the temperature effects can stimulate biological processes of different natures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers for Drug Delivery Systems)

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35 pages, 10452 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances of g-C₃N₄/LDHs Composite Photocatalysts in Water Pollution Treatment

by Jing Li, Yaping Guo and Jie Bai

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010180 (registering DOI) - 3 Jan 2026

Abstract

Water pollution poses a pressing global environmental threat, driving an urgent need for efficient, stable, and eco-friendly water treatment techniques. Semiconductor photocatalysis has emerged as a highly promising solution, utilizing solar energy to thoroughly degrade pollutants under mild conditions without secondary pollution. Among [...] Read more.

Water pollution poses a pressing global environmental threat, driving an urgent need for efficient, stable, and eco-friendly water treatment techniques. Semiconductor photocatalysis has emerged as a highly promising solution, utilizing solar energy to thoroughly degrade pollutants under mild conditions without secondary pollution. Among numerous photocatalysts, the graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄)/layered double hydroxides (LDHs) heterostructures represent a kind of high-performance photocatalysts that combine the integrated advantages of both components. These composites exhibit enhanced visible-light absorption, a highly efficient charge separation and transfer, and a significantly increased specific surface area that promotes the enrichment and degradation of pollutants. The synergistic interaction between g-C₃N₄ and LDHs not only mitigates their individual limitations but also creates a superior photocatalytic system with improved adsorption capacity and reaction kinetics. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in g-C₃N₄/LDHs composite photocatalysts for aquatic pollutant removal. It elaborates on the structural synergies, synthesis routes, and optimization strategies, with a particular focus on applications and mechanistic insights into the degradation of various pollutants-including organic dyes, drugs, and phenolics. Finally, the review outlines current challenges and future research directions, such as deepening mechanistic understanding, designing multifunctional systems, and advancing toward scalable implementation, providing a valuable reference for developing next-generation photocatalytic water treatment technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Photochemistry)

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33 pages, 3469 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Wine Production from Hybrid Cultivars: Impact of Grape Maceration Time on the Content of Bioactive Compounds

by Anna Kostecka-Gugała, Jacek Stanula, Jerzy Żuchowski and Paweł Kaszycki

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010179 (registering DOI) - 3 Jan 2026

Abstract

Wine is a rich source of biologically active compounds, particularly polyphenols, which exhibit antioxidant and antiradical properties. The objective of this study was to optimize the vinification procedures of Polish wines from the hybrid white grape cv. ‘Johanniter’ and red grape cv. ‘Regent’, [...] Read more.

Wine is a rich source of biologically active compounds, particularly polyphenols, which exhibit antioxidant and antiradical properties. The objective of this study was to optimize the vinification procedures of Polish wines from the hybrid white grape cv. ‘Johanniter’ and red grape cv. ‘Regent’, grown in the temperate climate of central Europe, by applying different skin maceration times: 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 days. The wines were compared for their basic oenological characteristics and polyphenolic (UHPLC–MS) content as well as their antioxidant (FRAP test) and antiradical (DPPH test, ORAC-fl and EPR spectroscopy) capacities. Both wines demonstrated a substantial increase in their total phenolic content and antioxidant and antiradical capacities after a 4-day maceration; further treatment did not lead to considerable enrichment in bioactive compounds. Scavenging activities against nitroxyl radicals and DPPH were divergent for the tested wines and depended on the analytical method applied, which indicated distinct molecular mechanisms. In turn, the activity of peroxyl radical scavengers, antioxidant capacity, and the total content of phenolics were higher in all the red wine samples. The antioxidant and antiradical properties of the examined wines were comparable or even exceeded those determined for most wines produced in regions with a rich winemaking tradition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research in Wine Chemistry and Analysis)

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20 pages, 6472 KB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetically Recoverable ICT-Functionalized Fe₃O₄ Nanoparticles for Efficient Horseradish Peroxidase Immobilization

by Katarina Isaković, Marko Jonović, Dušan Sredojević, Marko Bošković, Jovana Periša, Zorica Knežević-Jugović and Vesna Lazić

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010178 (registering DOI) - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

The formation of interfacial charge transfer (ICT) complexes between phenolic ligands and metal oxide surfaces enables surface functionalization strategies with potential applications in catalysis and bioconjugation. In this study, magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles were modified with two phenolic ligands, 5-aminosalicylic [...] Read more.

The formation of interfacial charge transfer (ICT) complexes between phenolic ligands and metal oxide surfaces enables surface functionalization strategies with potential applications in catalysis and bioconjugation. In this study, magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles were modified with two phenolic ligands, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5ASA) and caffeic acid (CA), to generate ICT complexes capable of covalent or non-covalent enzyme immobilization, respectively. The modified nanomaterials were structurally characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was immobilized on these functionalized supports using varying nanoparticle amounts (10–30 mg) and initial enzyme concentrations (25–250 µg mL⁻¹). Catalytic activity was evaluated using pyrogallol oxidation assays. The Fe₃O₄/5ASA–HRP system exhibited a maximum activity of 2.5 U per 20 mg of support (approximately 125 U g⁻¹), whereas Fe₃O₄/CA showed minimal activity under the same conditions. Enzyme loading studies confirmed that 5ASA-enabled covalent attachment resulted in significantly higher immobilization efficiency (up to 1068 mg g⁻¹) compared to the CA system. Reusability tests demonstrated that the Fe₃O₄/5ASA system retained high absolute catalytic activity during the initial reaction cycles and consistently outperformed the non-covalently immobilized Fe₃O₄/CA system upon repeated reuse. The magnetic properties of Fe₃O₄ allowed rapid recovery of the biocatalysts using an external magnetic field. These results highlight the effectiveness of ICT-based functionalization for enzyme immobilization, positioning Fe₃O₄/5ASA as a promising platform for robust and reusable biocatalysts in environmental and industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Nanomaterials for Pollution Control and Environmental Remediation)

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20 pages, 8258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomedical Applications of Chitosan-Coated Gallium Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Ga_xFe_(3−x)O₄ with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 for Magnetic Hyperthermia

by Marta Orzechowska, Urszula Klekotka, Magdalena Czerniecka, Adam Tylicki, Dmytro Soloviov, Arkadiusz Miaskowski and Katarzyna Rećko

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010177 - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

Nanoparticles based on gallium ferrite are explored as potential agents for magnetic fluid hyperthermia due to their magnetic performance and biocompatibility. In this study, Ga_xFe_3−xO₄ systems (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) were synthesized by co-precipitation of iron chlorides, [...] Read more.

Nanoparticles based on gallium ferrite are explored as potential agents for magnetic fluid hyperthermia due to their magnetic performance and biocompatibility. In this study, Ga_xFe_3−xO₄ systems (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) were synthesized by co-precipitation of iron chlorides, with part of the series modified by a chitosan shell. Structural analysis confirmed single-phase formation across the studied range, while microscopy revealed irregular morphology, broad size distribution, and aggregation into mass-fractal-like assemblies. Chitosan was observed to coat groups of particles rather than single crystallites. Under an alternating magnetic field, all samples exhibited efficient heating, with specific absorption rate values generally increasing with gallium content. The composition Ga_0.73Fe_2.27O₄ showed the highest SAR—83.4 ± 2.2 W/g at 2.8 mg/mL, 532 kHz, 15.3 kA/m, and SAR values rose with decreasing concentration. Cytotoxicity assays without magnetic activation indicated no harmful effect, while chitosan-coated nanoparticles enhanced fibroblast viability and lowered metabolic activity of HeLa cells. Higher Ga content (x = 0.66) combined with chitosan modification was identified as optimal for hyperthermia. The results demonstrate the biomedical potential of these nanoparticles, while emphasizing the need to reduce shape heterogeneity, aggregation, and sedimentation for improved performance. Full article

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37 pages, 1528 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Dysprosium Recovery from Secondary Sources: A Review of Hydrometallurgical, Biohydrometallurgicaland Solvometallurgical Approaches

by Ewa Rudnik

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010176 (registering DOI) - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

Dysprosium is one of the most critical elements for global economies due to its essential role in the green energy transition. Although it is added in small quantities as an alloying element, dysprosium plays a crucial role in NdFeB magnets used in wind [...] Read more.

Dysprosium is one of the most critical elements for global economies due to its essential role in the green energy transition. Although it is added in small quantities as an alloying element, dysprosium plays a crucial role in NdFeB magnets used in wind turbines and industrial motors. On the other hand, the limited resources and production capacity of dysprosium contribute to supply shortages and raise concerns about its long-term availability. Therefore, there is a need for efficient techniques that will enable the recovery of dysprosium from secondary materials to bridge the gap between supply and demand while addressing the risks associated with securing a stable supply. This review focuses on (bio)hydrometallurgical and solvometallurgical methods for recovering dysprosium from key secondary sources such as spent NdFeB magnets, phosphogypsum, and coal ash. Although these wastes do not always contain high concentrations of dysprosium, they can have a simpler elemental composition compared to primary sources (a few tens or hundreds of ppm Dy) and are more readily available. Spent NdFeB magnets, with a few percent Dy, show the most promise for recycling. In contrast, coal fly ashes (with several ppm Dy), although widely available, bind dysprosium in an inert phase, requiring substantial pretreatment to enhance the release of the desired element. Phosphogypsum, while not yet a significant source of dysprosium (several ppm Dy), is increasingly recognized as a potential source for other rare earth elements. Although conventional hydrometallurgical methods are commonly used, these are typically unselective for dysprosium recovery, whereas unconventional solvometallurgical approaches show preferential extraction of dysprosium over base metals. Full article

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29 pages, 1989 KB

Open AccessReview

Marine Macroalgal Polysaccharides in Nanomedicine: Blue Biotechnology Contributions in Advanced Therapeutics

by Renu Geetha Bai, Surya Sudheer, Amal D. Premarathna and Rando Tuvikene

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010175 - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

Marine macroalgae represent a versatile and sustainable platform within blue biotechnology, offering structurally diverse polysaccharides that are making significant contributions to next-generation therapeutical applications. Algae are rich sources of high-value biomolecules, including polysaccharides, vitamins, minerals, proteins, antioxidants, pigments and fibers. Algal biomolecules are [...] Read more.

Marine macroalgae represent a versatile and sustainable platform within blue biotechnology, offering structurally diverse polysaccharides that are making significant contributions to next-generation therapeutical applications. Algae are rich sources of high-value biomolecules, including polysaccharides, vitamins, minerals, proteins, antioxidants, pigments and fibers. Algal biomolecules are widely explored in modern pharmaceuticals due to their range of physiochemical and biological properties. Recently, algal polysaccharides have gained increasing attention in nanomedicine due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability and tunable bioactivity. The nanomedical applications of algal polysaccharides pertain to their anti-coagulant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-cancer properties. In this review, we discuss some major macroalgal polysaccharides, such as agar, agarose, funoran, porphyran, carrageenan, alginate and fucoidan, as well as their structure, uses, and applications in nanomedical systems. Both sulfated and non-sulfated polysaccharides demonstrate significant therapeutic properties when engineered into their nanotherapeutic forms. Previous studies show antimicrobial potential of 80–90% antiviral activity > 70%, significant anticoagulant activity, and excellent anticancer responses (up to 80% reductions in cancer cell viability have been reported in nanoformulated versions of polysaccharides). This review discusses structure–function relationships, bioactivities, nanomaterial synthesis and nanomedical applications (e.g., drug delivery, tissue engineering, biosensing, bioimaging, and nanotheranostics). Overall, this review reflects the potential of algal polysaccharides as building blocks in sustainable biomedical engineering in the future healthcare industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Biomolecules for Food and Pharmaceutical Innovations: Extraction, Characterization and Applications)

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13 pages, 1272 KB

Open AccessArticle

Organ-Specific Diversity of Secoiridoids in Ligustrum japonicum Thunb.

by Sang Won Yeon, Qing Liu, Hak Hyun Lee, Se Jeong Kim, Su Hyeon Lee, Mun-Ock Kim, Bang Yeon Hwang and Mi Kyeong Lee

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010174 - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

Ligustrum japonicum Thunb. (Oleaceae) has long been valued for the medicinal properties. Its fruits are traditionally utilized, while the leaves and branches are generally discarded after fruit harvest. These aerial parts therefore represent underutilized by-products whose phytochemical profiles remain insufficiently characterized. To elucidate [...] Read more.

Ligustrum japonicum Thunb. (Oleaceae) has long been valued for the medicinal properties. Its fruits are traditionally utilized, while the leaves and branches are generally discarded after fruit harvest. These aerial parts therefore represent underutilized by-products whose phytochemical profiles remain insufficiently characterized. To elucidate the organ-specific chemical diversity and assess the potential value of these underutilized parts, a comparative analysis of the fruits, leaves, and branches was performed using HPLC–MS/MS combined with GNPS-based molecular networking, with a particular focus on secoiridoids, the characteristic metabolites of the Oleaceae family. This approach revealed substantial overlap as well as distinct variations in secoiridoid profiles among the three plant organs. Chromatographic separation yielded 14 secoiridoid derivatives shared across all organs. In addition, four previously undescribed secoiridoids were isolated and identified through spectroscopic analyses: secoligunosides A (1) and B (2) from the leaves and secoligunosides C (3) and D (4) from the branches. Among the major identified secoiridoids, oleuropein (10), 8Z-nüezhenide (17), and GL-3 (18) exhibited weak proliferative activity, showing an approximately 10–20% increase compared to control, on human dermal papilla cells. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the leaves and branches not only contain key secoiridoids found in the fruits but also harbor unique metabolites, highlighting their value as alternative or complementary medicinal resources. The underutilized parts of L. japonicum therefore represent promising sources of natural products and warrant further investigation for future therapeutic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds from Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds: 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 8627 KB

Open AccessArticle

{Zn^II₂} and {Zn^IIAu^I} Metal Complexes with Schiff Base Ligands as Potential Antitumor Agents Against Human Glioblastoma Multiforme Cells

by Lora Dyakova, Tanya Zhivkova, Abedulkadir Abudalleh, Daniela C. Culita, Teodora Mocanu, Augustin M. Madalan, Anamaria Hanganu, Gabriela Marinescu, Emanuil Naydenov and Radostina Alexandrova

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010173 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

The challenges of glioblastoma multiforme treatment are related to limitations in tumor removal surgery, its high heterogeneity and aggressiveness, development of resistance to standard therapy, the blood–brain barrier, and the side and toxic effects of the conventional antitumor agents used in clinical practice. [...] Read more.

The challenges of glioblastoma multiforme treatment are related to limitations in tumor removal surgery, its high heterogeneity and aggressiveness, development of resistance to standard therapy, the blood–brain barrier, and the side and toxic effects of the conventional antitumor agents used in clinical practice. Although new treatment strategies continue to emerge, progress remains slow and has not resulted in substantial improvements in patient survival. The main goal of research in recent years has been aimed at developing ways to deal with all these challenges. One of the ways to improve the control of glioblastomas is the introduction of effective new antitumor agents. Metal complexes represent a particularly promising class of compounds in this context. This is why the aim of this study was to assess the effects of six homo- and heterometallic coordination compounds bearing Schiff base ligands—[Zn₂(Ampy)(µ-OH)(H₂O)₂](ClO₄)₂ (ZnAmpy), [Zn₂(Dmen)(µ-OH)(H₂O)₂](ClO₄)₂ (ZnDmen), ¹_∞[{Zn₂(Ampy)(μ₃-OH)}₂(H₂O){μ-[Au(CN)₂]}](ClO₄)₃·THF·H₂O (ZnAmpyAu), [{Zn₂(Dmen)(μ-OH)}₂{μ-[Au(CN)₂]}{[Au(CN)₂]₂}](ClO₄)·H₂O (ZnDmenAu), ¹_∞[Zn(Salampy){μ-Au(CN)₂}] (ZnSalampyAu), and ¹_∞[Zn(Saldmen)(μ-Au(CN)₂}] (ZnSaldmenAu)—on the viability and proliferation of 8MGBA and U251MG human glioblastoma multiforme cells (HDmen and HAmpy are bicompartmental Schiff base ligands resulting from the condensation of 2,6-diformyl-p-cresol with N,N-dimethylethylenediamine and 2-(aminomethyl)pyridine, respectively, while HSaldmen and HSalampy are tridentate Schiff base ligands obtained via condensation of salicylaldehyde with N,N-dimethylethylenediamine and 2-(aminomethyl)pyridine, respectively). Among these compounds, ZnSaldmenAu is a new compound and is reported here for the first time. Cytotoxicity of the compounds was evaluated through analysis of cell viability, 2D/3D growth, cytopathological alterations, and induction of cell death. The results obtained by methods with different targets in cells and the associated mechanisms of action revealed that the compounds investigated show promising cytotoxic/potential antitumor activity in treated cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Schiff Base Ligands and Their Metal Complexes)

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21 pages, 984 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unlocking the Functional Value of European-Originated Chrysanthemum Hybrids: Phytochemical and Bioactivity Assessment

by Natalia Miler, Maciej Balcerek, Jakub Gębalski, Anita Woźny, Magdalena Wójciak, Ireneusz Sowa and Daniel Załuski

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010172 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Chrysanthemums are appreciated not only for their ornamental and medicinal attributes but also as edible plants long incorporated into teas, infusions, and culinary traditions. Yet, hybrid cultivars specifically adapted to European growing conditions remain poorly characterized with respect to their medicinal potential. In [...] Read more.

Chrysanthemums are appreciated not only for their ornamental and medicinal attributes but also as edible plants long incorporated into teas, infusions, and culinary traditions. Yet, hybrid cultivars specifically adapted to European growing conditions remain poorly characterized with respect to their medicinal potential. In this study, we investigated the phytochemical composition, antioxidant properties, and enzyme-inhibitory activities of inflorescences of four field-grown Chrysanthemum × morifolium ‘Donna’ × C. rubellum ‘Clara Curtis’ hybrids of European origin (CD 7, DC 19, DC 26, CD 46). Their profiles were compared with those of a Chinese tea cultivar (C. morifolium CHR18) and a commercial herbal product (CH B). Chemical constituents were analyzed using GC–MS and LC–MS, while antioxidant activity was evaluated by FRAP, CUPRAC, DPPH, ABTS, and iron-chelating assays; hyaluronidase (HYAL) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibition were also assessed. A total of 61 volatile compounds were identified, with several terpenoids—such as chrysanthenone and verbenone—occurring exclusively in the European hybrids. CHR 18 possessed the highest flavonoid and phenolic acid levels, whereas hybrid CD 46 exhibited the most pronounced overall antioxidant performance. Hyaluronidase inhibition was strongest in DC 26 and CD 46 (60–62%), surpassing both reference samples, while BChE inhibition remained generally low. Overall, the results highlight that C. morifolium × C. rubellum hybrids developed for cultivation in the temperate European climate offer a unique combination of phytochemical richness, robust antioxidant activity, and noteworthy enzyme inhibition. These traits underscore their promise as emerging functional chrysanthemum resources and support future applications in European herbal products, nutraceutical development, and region-specific functional food innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal Value of Natural Bioactive Compounds and Plant Extracts, 3rd Edition)

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16 pages, 1767 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling Fermentation Effects on the Functional Composition of Taiwanese Native Teas

by Wei-Ting Hung, Chih-Chun Kuo, Jheng-Jhe Lu, Fu-Sheng Yang, Yu-Ling Cheng, Yi-Jen Sung, Chiao-Sung Chiou, Hsuan-Han Huang, Tsung-Chen Su, Hsien-Tsung Tsai and Kuan-Chen Cheng

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010171 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Tea’s chemical composition is influenced by cultivar, harvest maturity, and growing environment; however, processing remains the dominant factor shaping final quality. Despite the diversity of Taiwanese native teas, systematic comparisons of functional components across multiple manufacturing stages remain limited. In this study, nine [...] Read more.

Tea’s chemical composition is influenced by cultivar, harvest maturity, and growing environment; however, processing remains the dominant factor shaping final quality. Despite the diversity of Taiwanese native teas, systematic comparisons of functional components across multiple manufacturing stages remain limited. In this study, nine representative Taiwanese teas were evaluated at four key processing stages—green tea (G), enzymatic fermentation (oxidative fermentation, F), semi-finished tea prior to roasting (S), and completed tea (C)—to clarify how enzymatic oxidation, rolling, and roasting alter major bioactive constituents. Green-tea-stage samples exhibited clear cultivar-dependent profiles: large-leaf cultivars contained higher catechins and gallic acid, whereas bud-rich small-leaf teas showed elevated caffeine and amino acids, with amino acids further enhanced at higher elevations. Fermentation intensity governed the major chemical transitions, including catechin depletion, gallic acid formation, accumulation of early stage catechin-derived paired oxidative polymerization compounds (POPCs), and pronounced increases in theasinensins in heavily fermented teas. L-theanine decreased most markedly in teas subjected to prolonged withering. Roasting further reduced amino acids but had minimal influence on caffeine, while rolling effects varied by tea type. Overall, this study provides the first stage-resolved chemical map of Taiwanese native teas, offering practical insights for optimizing processing strategies to enhance functional phytochemical profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 30th Anniversary of Molecules—Recent Advances in Food Chemistry)

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