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16 pages, 8864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Review on Wearables to Monitor Foot Temperature in Diabetic Patients

by Jesús Martín-Vaquero, Ascensión Hernández Encinas, Araceli Queiruga-Dios, Juan José Bullón, Alfonso Martínez-Nova, Jose Torreblanca González and Cristina Bullón-Carbajo

Sensors 2019, 19(4), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040776 - 14 Feb 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7475

Abstract

One of the diseases that could affect diabetic patients is the diabetic foot problem. Unnoticed minor injuries and subsequent infection can lead to ischemic ulceration, and may end in a foot amputation. Preliminary studies have shown that there is a positive relationship between [...] Read more.

One of the diseases that could affect diabetic patients is the diabetic foot problem. Unnoticed minor injuries and subsequent infection can lead to ischemic ulceration, and may end in a foot amputation. Preliminary studies have shown that there is a positive relationship between increased skin temperature and the pre–ulceration phase. Hence, we have carried out a review on wearables, medical devices, and sensors used specifically for collecting vital data. In particular, we are interested in the measure of the foot–temperature. Since there is a large amount of this type of medical wearables, we will focus on those used to measure temperature and developed in Spain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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24 pages, 509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toward a Robust Multi-Objective Metaheuristic for Solving the Relay Node Placement Problem in Wireless Sensor Networks

by José M. Lanza-Gutiérrez, Nuria Caballé, Juan A. Gómez-Pulido, Broderick Crawford and Ricardo Soto

Sensors 2019, 19(3), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030677 - 7 Feb 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4016

Abstract

During the last decade, Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have attracted interest due to the excellent monitoring capabilities offered. However, WSNs present shortcomings, such as energy cost and reliability, which hinder real-world applications. As a solution, Relay Node (RN) deployment strategies could help to [...] Read more.

During the last decade, Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have attracted interest due to the excellent monitoring capabilities offered. However, WSNs present shortcomings, such as energy cost and reliability, which hinder real-world applications. As a solution, Relay Node (RN) deployment strategies could help to improve WSNs. This fact is known as the Relay Node Placement Problem (RNPP), which is an NP-hard optimization problem. This paper proposes to address two Multi-Objective (MO) formulations of the RNPP. The first one optimizes average energy cost and average sensitivity area. The second one optimizes the two previous objectives and network reliability. The authors propose to solve the two problems through a wide range of MO metaheuristics from the three main groups in the field: evolutionary algorithms, swarm intelligence algorithms, and trajectory algorithms. These algorithms are the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II), Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm 2 (SPEA2), Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithm based on Decomposition (MOEA/D), Multi-Objective Artificial Bee Colony (MO-ABC), Multi-Objective Firefly Algorithm (MO-FA), Multi-Objective Gravitational Search Algorithm (MO-GSA), and Multi-Objective Variable Neighbourhood Search Algorithm (MO-VNS). The results obtained are statistically analysed to determine if there is a robust metaheuristic to be recommended for solving the RNPP independently of the number of objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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25 pages, 19490 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Open Hardware Design for Internet of Things Power Quality and Energy Saving Solutions

by Eduardo Viciana, Alfredo Alcayde, Francisco G. Montoya, Raul Baños, Francisco M. Arrabal-Campos and Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro

Sensors 2019, 19(3), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030627 - 1 Feb 2019

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7109

Abstract

An important challenge for our society is the transformation of traditional power systems to a decentralized model based on renewable energy sources. In this new scenario, advanced devices are needed for real-time monitoring and control of the energy flow and power quality (PQ). [...] Read more.

An important challenge for our society is the transformation of traditional power systems to a decentralized model based on renewable energy sources. In this new scenario, advanced devices are needed for real-time monitoring and control of the energy flow and power quality (PQ). Ideally, the data collected by Internet of Thing (IoT) sensors should be shared to central cloud systems for online and off-line analysis. In this paper openZmeter (oZm) is presented as an advanced low-cost and open-source hardware device for high-precision energy and power quality measurement in low-voltage power systems. An analog front end (AFE) stage is designed and developed for the acquisition, conditioning, and processing of power signals. This AFE can be stacked on available quadcore embedded ARM boards. The proposed hardware is capable of adapting voltage signals up to 800 V AC/DC and currents up to thousands of amperes using different probes. The oZm device is described as a fully autonomous open-source system for the computation and visualization of PQ events and consumed/generated energy, along with full details of its hardware implementation. It also has the ability to send data to central cloud management systems. Given the small size of the hardware design and considering that it allows measurements under a wide range of operating conditions, oZm can be used both as bulk metering or as metering/submetering device for individual appliances. The design is released as open hardware and therefore is presented to the community as a powerful tool for general usage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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28 pages, 9875 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Physiological Sensor-Based Android Application Synchronized with a Driving Simulator for Driver Monitoring

by David González-Ortega, Francisco Javier Díaz-Pernas, Mario Martínez-Zarzuela and Míriam Antón-Rodríguez

Sensors 2019, 19(2), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19020399 - 19 Jan 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5976

Abstract

In this paper, we present an Android application to control and monitor the physiological sensors from the Shimmer platform and its synchronized working with a driving simulator. The Android app can monitor drivers and their parameters can be used to analyze the relation [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an Android application to control and monitor the physiological sensors from the Shimmer platform and its synchronized working with a driving simulator. The Android app can monitor drivers and their parameters can be used to analyze the relation between their physiological states and driving performance. The app can configure, select, receive, process, represent graphically, and store the signals from electrocardiogram (ECG), electromyogram (EMG) and galvanic skin response (GSR) modules and accelerometers, a magnetometer and a gyroscope. The Android app is synchronized in two steps with a driving simulator that we previously developed using the Unity game engine to analyze driving security and efficiency. The Android app was tested with different sensors working simultaneously at various sampling rates and in different Android devices. We also tested the synchronized working of the driving simulator and the Android app with 25 people and analyzed the relation between data from the ECG, EMG, GSR, and gyroscope sensors and from the simulator. Among others, some significant correlations between a gyroscope-based feature calculated by the Android app and vehicle data and particular traffic offences were found. The Android app can be applied with minor adaptations to other different users such as patients with chronic diseases or athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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13 pages, 5346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Power Low-Cost Wireless Flood Sensor for Smart Home Systems

by Pedro Teixidó, Juan Antonio Gómez-Galán, Fernando Gómez-Bravo, Trinidad Sánchez-Rodríguez, Javier Alcina and Juan Aponte

Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3817; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113817 - 7 Nov 2018

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7132

Abstract

This paper presents the design of a wireless flood sensor to detect the presence of water on home floors, providing early warning of water leaks. A wireless sensor network has been deployed to gather the measurements from the sensor nodes. A control central [...] Read more.

This paper presents the design of a wireless flood sensor to detect the presence of water on home floors, providing early warning of water leaks. A wireless sensor network has been deployed to gather the measurements from the sensor nodes. A control central coordinates the network and processes the data. Users can remotely inquire for the presence of water, status of the batteries for a specific node, the type of liquid and information about its functionality and alarms, thanks to a proprietary software application. The alerts are also communicated to the user within the home through an audible siren. The designed device is optimized in terms of costs, ease of deployment and maintenance, thus making it widely acceptable to end users. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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26 pages, 1528 KiB

Open AccessArticle

D2R-TED: Data—Domain Reduction Model for Threshold-Based Event Detection in Sensor Networks

by Fernando Leon-Garcia, Jose Manuel Palomares and Joaquin Olivares

Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3806; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113806 - 6 Nov 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3499

Abstract

The reduction of sensor network traffic has become a scientific challenge. Different compression techniques are applied for this purpose, offering general solutions which try to minimize the loss of information. Here, a new proposal for traffic reduction by redefining the domains of the [...] Read more.

The reduction of sensor network traffic has become a scientific challenge. Different compression techniques are applied for this purpose, offering general solutions which try to minimize the loss of information. Here, a new proposal for traffic reduction by redefining the domains of the sensor data is presented. A configurable data reduction model is proposed focused on periodic duty–cycled sensor networks with events triggered by threshold. The loss of information produced by the model is analyzed in this paper in the context of event detection, an unusual approach leading to a set of specific metrics that enable the evaluation of the model in terms of traffic savings, precision, and recall. Different model configurations are tested with two experimental cases, whose input data are extracted from an extensive set of real data. In particular, two new versions of Send–on–Delta (SoD) and Predictive Sampling (PS) have been designed and implemented in the proposed data–domain reduction for threshold–based event detection (D2R-TED) model. The obtained results illustrate the potential usefulness of analyzing different model configurations to obtain a cost–benefit curve, in terms of traffic savings and quality of the response. Experiments show an average reduction of

76 %

of network packages with an error of less than 1%. In addition, experiments show that the methods designed under the proposed D2R–TED model outperform the original event–triggered SoD and PS methods by

10 %

and

16 %

of the traffic savings, respectively. This model is useful to avoid network bottlenecks by applying the optimal configuration in each situation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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9 pages, 2038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wireless Temperature Sensor Based on a Nematic Liquid Crystal Cell as Variable Capacitance

by Juan Carlos Torres, Braulio García-Cámara, Isabel Pérez, Virginia Urruchi and José Manuel Sánchez-Pena

Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3436; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103436 - 12 Oct 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4332

Abstract

Wireless communication is growing quickly and now allows technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT). It is included in many smart sensors helping to reduce the installation and system costs. These sensors increase flexibility, simplify deployment and address a new set of applications [...] Read more.

Wireless communication is growing quickly and now allows technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT). It is included in many smart sensors helping to reduce the installation and system costs. These sensors increase flexibility, simplify deployment and address a new set of applications that was previously impossible with a wired approach. In this work, a wireless temperature sensor based on a nematic liquid crystal as variable capacitance is proposed as a proof of concept for potential wearable applications. Performance analysis of the wireless temperature sensor has been carried out and a simple equivalent circuit has been proposed. Sensor prototype has been successfully fabricated and demonstrated as the beginning of new biomedical sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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13 pages, 6021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of a 2D Touch Sensor with an Electroluminescent Display by Using a Screen-Printing Technology on Textile Substrate

by Josue Ferri, Clara Perez Fuster, Raúl Llinares Llopis, Jorge Moreno and Eduardo Garcia‑Breijo

Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3313; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103313 - 2 Oct 2018

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6373

Abstract

Many types of solutions have been studied and developed in order to give the user feedback when using touchpads, buttons, or keyboards in textile industry. Their application on textiles could allow a wide range of applications in the field of medicine, sports or [...] Read more.

Many types of solutions have been studied and developed in order to give the user feedback when using touchpads, buttons, or keyboards in textile industry. Their application on textiles could allow a wide range of applications in the field of medicine, sports or the automotive industry. In this work, we introduce a novel solution that combines a 2D touchpad with an electroluminescent display (ELD). This approach physically has two circuits over a flexible textile substrate using the screen-printing technique for wearable electronics applications. Screen-printing technology is widely used in the textile industry and does not require heavy investments. For the proposed solution, different layer structures are presented, considering several fabric materials and inks, to obtain the best results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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18 pages, 1769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting Pollution-Free Routes in Smart Cities Using Air Quality Sensor Networks

by Francisco Ramos, Sergio Trilles, Andrés Muñoz and Joaquín Huerta

Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2507; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082507 - 1 Aug 2018

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 7547

Abstract

Nowadays, citizens have a huge concern about the quality of life in their cities, especially regarding the level of pollution. Air quality level is of great importance, not only to plan our activities but also to take precautionary measures for our health. All [...] Read more.

Nowadays, citizens have a huge concern about the quality of life in their cities, especially regarding the level of pollution. Air quality level is of great importance, not only to plan our activities but also to take precautionary measures for our health. All levels of governments are concerned about it and have built their indexes to measure the air quality level in their countries, regions or cities. Taking into account the existing sensor infrastructure within smart cities, it makes possible to evaluate these indices and to know anywhere the level of pollution in real-time. In this scenario, the main objective of the current work is to foster citizens’ awareness about pollution by offering pollution-free routes. To achieve this goal, a technology-agnostic methodology is presented, which allows for creating pollution-free routes across cities depending on the level of pollution in each zone. The current work includes an extensive study of existing air quality indices, and proposes and carries forward to deployment of the defined methodology in a big city, such as Madrid (Spain). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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16 pages, 2842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Finite State Machine Approach to Algorithmic Lateral Inhibition for Real-Time Motion Detection ^†

by María T. López, Aurelio Bermúdez, Francisco Montero, José L. Sánchez and Antonio Fernández-Caballero

Sensors 2018, 18(5), 1420; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18051420 - 3 May 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3803

Abstract

Many researchers have explored the relationship between recurrent neural networks and finite state machines. Finite state machines constitute the best-characterized computational model, whereas artificial neural networks have become a very successful tool for modeling and problem solving. The neurally-inspired lateral inhibition method, and [...] Read more.

Many researchers have explored the relationship between recurrent neural networks and finite state machines. Finite state machines constitute the best-characterized computational model, whereas artificial neural networks have become a very successful tool for modeling and problem solving. The neurally-inspired lateral inhibition method, and its application to motion detection tasks, have been successfully implemented in recent years. In this paper, control knowledge of the algorithmic lateral inhibition (ALI) method is described and applied by means of finite state machines, in which the state space is constituted from the set of distinguishable cases of accumulated charge in a local memory. The article describes an ALI implementation for a motion detection task. For the implementation, we have chosen to use one of the members of the 16-nm Kintex UltraScale+ family of Xilinx FPGAs. FPGAs provide the necessary accuracy, resolution, and precision to run neural algorithms alongside current sensor technologies. The results offered in this paper demonstrate that this implementation provides accurate object tracking performance on several datasets, obtaining a high F-score value (0.86) for the most complex sequence used. Moreover, it outperforms implementations of a complete ALI algorithm and a simplified version of the ALI algorithm—named “accumulative computation”—which was run about ten years ago, now reaching real-time processing times that were simply not achievable at that time for ALI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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12 pages, 2908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Drones in Spain: Towards a Platform for Controlling UAVs in Urban Environments

by Pablo Chamoso, Alfonso González-Briones, Alberto Rivas, Federico Bueno De Mata and Juan Manuel Corchado

Sensors 2018, 18(5), 1416; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18051416 - 3 May 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5858

Abstract

Rapid advances in technology make it necessary to prepare our society in every aspect. Some of the most significant technological developments of the last decade are the UAVs (Unnamed Aerial Vehicles) or drones. UAVs provide a wide range of new possibilities and have [...] Read more.

Rapid advances in technology make it necessary to prepare our society in every aspect. Some of the most significant technological developments of the last decade are the UAVs (Unnamed Aerial Vehicles) or drones. UAVs provide a wide range of new possibilities and have become a tool that we now use on a daily basis. However, if their use is not controlled, it could entail several risks, which make it necessary to legislate and monitor UAV flights to ensure, inter alia, the security and privacy of all citizens. As a result of this problem, several laws have been passed which seek to regulate their use; however, no proposals have been made with regards to the control of airspace from a technological point of view. This is exactly what we propose in this article: a platform with different modes designed to control UAVs and monitor their status. The features of the proposed platform provide multiple advantages that make the use of UAVs more secure, such as prohibiting UAVs’ access to restricted areas or avoiding collisions between vehicles. The platform has been successfully tested in Salamanca, Spain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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13 pages, 2436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Nature of Energy-Feasible Wireless Nanosensor Networks

by Sebastian Canovas-Carrasco, Antonio-Javier Garcia-Sanchez and Joan Garcia-Haro

Sensors 2018, 18(5), 1356; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18051356 - 27 Apr 2018

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3996

Abstract

Electromagnetic nanocommunications, understood as the communication between electronic nanoscale devices through electromagnetic waves in the terahertz band, has attracted increasing attention in recent years. In this regard, several solutions have already been proposed. However, many of them do not sufficiently capture the significance [...] Read more.

Electromagnetic nanocommunications, understood as the communication between electronic nanoscale devices through electromagnetic waves in the terahertz band, has attracted increasing attention in recent years. In this regard, several solutions have already been proposed. However, many of them do not sufficiently capture the significance of the limitations in nanodevice energy-gathering and storing capacity. In this paper, we address key factors affecting the energy consumption of nanodevices, highlighting the effect of the communication scheme employed. Then, we also examine how nanodevices are powered, focusing on the main parameters governing the powering nanosystem. Different mathematical expressions are derived to analyze the impact of these parameters on its performance. Based on these expressions, the functionality of a nanogenerator is evaluated to gain insight into the conditions under which a wireless nanosensor network (WNSN) is viable from the energetic point of view. The results reveal that a micrometer-sized piezoelectric system in high-lossy environments (exceeding 100 dB/mm) becomes inoperative for transmission distances over 1.5 mm by its inability to harvest and store the amount of energy required to overcome the path loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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16 pages, 35557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Over-The-Row Harvester Damage in a Super-High-Density Olive Orchard Using On-Board Sensing Techniques

by Manuel Pérez-Ruiz, Pilar Rallo, M. Rocío Jiménez, Miguel Garrido-Izard, M. Paz Suárez, Laura Casanova, Constantino Valero, Jorge Martínez-Guanter and Ana Morales-Sillero

Sensors 2018, 18(4), 1242; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18041242 - 17 Apr 2018

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6702

Abstract

New super-high-density (SHD) olive orchards designed for mechanical harvesting using over-the-row harvesters are becoming increasingly common around the world. Some studies regarding olive SHD harvesting have focused on the effective removal of the olive fruits; however, the energy applied to the canopy by [...] Read more.

New super-high-density (SHD) olive orchards designed for mechanical harvesting using over-the-row harvesters are becoming increasingly common around the world. Some studies regarding olive SHD harvesting have focused on the effective removal of the olive fruits; however, the energy applied to the canopy by the harvesting machine that can result in fruit damage, structural damage or extra stress on the trees has been little studied. Using conventional analyses, this study investigates the effects of different nominal speeds and beating frequencies on the removal efficiency and the potential for fruit damage, and it uses remote sensing to determine changes in the plant structures of two varieties of olive trees (‘Manzanilla Cacereña’ and ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’) planted in SHD orchards harvested by an over-the-row harvester. ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ fruit was the least tolerant to damage, and for this variety, harvesting at the highest nominal speed led to the greatest percentage of fruits with cuts. Different vibration patterns were applied to the olive trees and were evaluated using triaxial accelerometers. The use of two light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensing devices allowed us to evaluate structural changes in the studied olive trees. Before- and after-harvest measurements revealed significant differences in the LiDAR data analysis, particularly at the highest nominal speed. The results of this work show that the operating conditions of the harvester are key to minimising fruit damage and that a rapid estimate of the damage produced by an over-the-row harvester with contactless sensing could provide useful information for automatically adjusting the machine parameters in individual olive groves in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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11 pages, 8935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Modeling of Weed Plants Using Low-Cost Photogrammetry

by Dionisio Andújar, Mikel Calle, César Fernández-Quintanilla, Ángela Ribeiro and José Dorado

Sensors 2018, 18(4), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18041077 - 3 Apr 2018

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 6319

Abstract

Sensing advances in plant phenotyping are of vital importance in basic and applied plant research. Plant phenotyping enables the modeling of complex shapes, which is useful, for example, in decision-making for agronomic management. In this sense, 3D processing algorithms for plant modeling is [...] Read more.

Sensing advances in plant phenotyping are of vital importance in basic and applied plant research. Plant phenotyping enables the modeling of complex shapes, which is useful, for example, in decision-making for agronomic management. In this sense, 3D processing algorithms for plant modeling is expanding rapidly with the emergence of new sensors and techniques designed to morphologically characterize. However, there are still some technical aspects to be improved, such as an accurate reconstruction of end-details. This study adapted low-cost techniques, Structure from Motion (SfM) and MultiView Stereo (MVS), to create 3D models for reconstructing plants of three weed species with contrasting shape and plant structures. Plant reconstruction was developed by applying SfM algorithms to an input set of digital images acquired sequentially following a track that was concentric and equidistant with respect to the plant axis and using three different angles, from a perpendicular to top view, which guaranteed the necessary overlap between images to obtain high precision 3D models. With this information, a dense point cloud was created using MVS, from which a 3D polygon mesh representing every plants’ shape and geometry was generated. These 3D models were validated with ground truth values (e.g., plant height, leaf area (LA) and plant dry biomass) using regression methods. The results showed, in general, a good consistency in the correlation equations between the estimated values in the models and the actual values measured in the weed plants. Indeed, 3D modeling using SfM algorithms proved to be a valuable methodology for weed phenotyping, since it accurately estimated the actual values of plant height and LA. Additionally, image processing using the SfM method was relatively fast. Consequently, our results indicate the potential of this budget system for plant reconstruction at high detail, which may be usable in several scenarios, including outdoor conditions. Future research should address other issues, such as the time-cost relationship and the need for detail in the different approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2018)

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