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Wearable and Portable Devices for Endurance Sports
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Wearable and Portable Devices for Endurance Sports

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Wearables".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 October 2025) | Viewed by 2833

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Diego Jaén-Carrillo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Sport Science, Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Interests: physiology; training; biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sport biomechanics and training have been traditionally tested in laboratory environments, requiring both specific conditions and expensive equipment. The novel use of wearable devices substitutes the lack of ecology for such measures and provides an affordable and easy-to-use option for performing biomechanics. Lately, wearable sensors have enabled the quantification of performance and workload by providing mechanical and physiological parameters, and their popularity has grown exponentially. In this context, more and more wearable sensors are commercially available and, when applied to biomechanics, these devices are able to provide both kinetic and kinematic variables, consequently improving the feasibility and testing time of such assessments and, therefore, becoming a real alternative for sport practitioners and researchers. Additionally, wearable devices facilitate real-time monitoring and biofeedback.

This Special Issue encourages authors to submit contributions on the use and application of wearable sensors for endurance sports.

The main topics for this issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Validity analysis of novel wearable devices for endurance sports.
  • Reliability analysis of wearable devices.
  • New applications and uses of metrics provided by wearable devices in training, competition, and injury management settings.
  • Novel technologies applied to sport biomechanics and training science.
  • The state of the art of wearable devices in relation to the topic of this Special Issue.
  • Algorithms, integrations with other platforms or software, signal processing, and big data obtained by wearable devices

Dr. Diego Jaén-Carrillo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • wearable devices
  • portable devices
  • sensors
  • biomechanics
  • endurance sports

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 881 KB  
Article
Force-Sensor-Based Analysis of the Effects of a Six-Week Plyometric Training Program on the Speed, Strength, and Balance Ability on Hard and Soft Surfaces of Adolescent Female Basketball Players
by Guopeng You, Bo Li and Shaocong Zhao
Sensors 2026, 26(3), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26030758 - 23 Jan 2026
Viewed by 535
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of 6 weeks of plyometric training (PT) performed on soft (unstable) and hard (stable) surfaces compared with conventional training on the balance, explosive power, and muscle strength of adolescent female basketball players. The participants were randomly assigned to [...] Read more.
This study investigated the effects of 6 weeks of plyometric training (PT) performed on soft (unstable) and hard (stable) surfaces compared with conventional training on the balance, explosive power, and muscle strength of adolescent female basketball players. The participants were randomly assigned to three groups: soft-surface PT (n = 14), hard-surface PT (n = 14), and conventional training (n = 14). Performance outcomes included 30 m sprint time, vertical jump height, plantar flexion and dorsiflexion maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torque, Y-balance dynamic balance, and center of pressure-based static balance. Ground reaction forces, MVIC torques, and balance parameters were measured using high-precision force sensors to ensure accurate quantification of biomechanical performance. Statistical analyses were performed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA with post hoc comparisons to evaluate group × time interaction effects across all outcome variables. Results demonstrated that soft- and hard-surface PT significantly improved sprint performance, vertical jump height, and plantar flexion MVIC torque compared with conventional training, while dorsiflexion MVIC increased similarly across all the groups. Notably, soft-surface training elicited greater enhancements in vertical jump height, dynamic balance (posteromedial and posterolateral directions), and static balance under single- and double-leg eyes-closed conditions. The findings suggest that PT on an unstable surface provides unique advantages in optimizing neuromuscular control and postural stability beyond those achieved with stable-surface or conventional training. Thus, soft-surface PT may serve as an effective adjunct to traditional conditioning programs, enhancing sport-specific explosive power and balance. These results provide practical guidance for designing evidence-based and individualized training interventions to improve performance and reduce injury risk among adolescent female basketball athletes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices for Endurance Sports)
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18 pages, 1030 KB  
Article
Effects of NMES Combined with Resistance Training Using Underwater Surface EMG Sensors on Neuromuscular Activation of Breaststroke Technique in Breaststroke Athletes: Analysis of Non-Negative Matrix Muscle Synergy
by Yaohao Guo, Tingyan Gao and Bin Kong
Sensors 2026, 26(2), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26020671 - 20 Jan 2026
Viewed by 586
Abstract
Background: Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is an effective exogenous neuromuscular activation method widely used in sports training and rehabilitation. However, existing research primarily focuses on land-based sports or single-joint movements, with limited in-depth exploration of its intervention effects and underlying neuromuscular control mechanisms [...] Read more.
Background: Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is an effective exogenous neuromuscular activation method widely used in sports training and rehabilitation. However, existing research primarily focuses on land-based sports or single-joint movements, with limited in-depth exploration of its intervention effects and underlying neuromuscular control mechanisms for complex, multi-joint coordinated aquatic activities like breaststroke swimming. This study aimed to investigate the effects of NMES combined with traditional resistance training on neuromuscular function during sport-specific technical movements in breaststroke athletes. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 30 national-level or above breaststroke athletes assigned to either an experimental group (NMES combined with traditional squat resistance training) or a control group (traditional squat resistance training only) for an 8-week intervention. A specialized fully waterproof wireless electromyography (EMG) sensor system (Mini Wave Infinity Waterproof) was used to synchronously collect surface EMG signals from 10 lower limb and trunk muscles during actual swimming, combined with high-speed video for movement phase segmentation. Changes in lower limb explosive power were assessed using a force plate. Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) muscle synergy analysis was employed to compare changes in muscle activation levels (iEMG, RMS) and synergy patterns (spatial structure, temporal activation coefficients) across different phases of the breaststroke kick before and after the intervention. Results: Compared to the control group, the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in single-leg jump height (Δ = 0.06 m vs. 0.03 m) and double-leg jump height (Δ = 0.07 m vs. 0.03 m). Time-domain EMG analysis revealed that the experimental group showed more significant increases in iEMG values for the adductor longus, adductor magnus, and gastrocnemius lateralis during the leg-retraction and leg-flipping phases (p < 0.05). During the pedal-clamp phase, the experimental group exhibited significantly reduced activation of the tibialis anterior alongside enhanced activation of the gastrocnemius. Muscle synergy analysis indicated that post-intervention, the experimental group showed a significant increase in the weighting of the vastus medialis and biceps femoris within synergy module 4 (SYN4, related to propulsion and posture) (p < 0.05), a significant increase in rectus abdominis weighting within synergy module 3 (SYN3, p = 0.033), and a significant shortening of the activation duration of synergy module 2 (SYN2, p = 0.007). Conclusions: NMES combined with traditional resistance training significantly enhances land-based explosive power in breaststroke athletes and specifically optimizes neuromuscular control strategies during the underwater breaststroke kick. This optimization is characterized by improved activation efficiency of key muscle groups, more economical coordination of antagonist muscles, and adaptive remodeling of inter-muscle synergy patterns in specific movement phases. This study provides novel evidence supporting the application of NMES in swimming-specific strength training, spanning from macroscopic performance to microscopic neural control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices for Endurance Sports)
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15 pages, 2719 KB  
Article
Effects of Sanda Sports Training on Cognitive–Motor Control Based on EEG and Heart Rate Sensors: A Coupled ERP and HRV Analysis
by Ziwen Ning, Jiayi Zhao, Chuanyin Jiang, Haojie Li, Haidong Jiang and Tianfen Zhou
Sensors 2025, 25(21), 6558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25216558 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1287
Abstract
Objective: To investigate whether prolonged Sanda combat experience improves cognitive–motor control via neuro-cardiac coupling. Methods: Nineteen national-level Sanda athletes and nineteen matched controls completed a color-word Stroop task while concurrent EEG and ECG were recorded. The conflict adaptation effect (CAE), which [...] Read more.
Objective: To investigate whether prolonged Sanda combat experience improves cognitive–motor control via neuro-cardiac coupling. Methods: Nineteen national-level Sanda athletes and nineteen matched controls completed a color-word Stroop task while concurrent EEG and ECG were recorded. The conflict adaptation effect (CAE), which refers to the ability to adjust cognitive control in response to conflicting stimuli, was compared between groups, along with P600 and LSP amplitudes and heart rate variability (RMSSD, HF); mediation analysis examined vagal recovery as a pathway. Results: Athletes responded faster and showed a larger CAE than controls (p < 0.001). ERP analyses revealed larger CAE-related P600 and LSP amplitudes in athletes (p < 0.05), with LSP amplitude inversely correlating with behavioral CAE (p < 0.05). Post-task vagal rebound (ΔRMSSD and ΔHF) was significantly greater in athletes (p < 0.05), and ΔRMSSD positively correlated with CAE (p < 0.05). Mediation analysis confirmed that vagal recovery partially mediated the association between Sanda experience and improved cognitive–motor control (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Sanda training enhances cognitive–motor control by accelerating parasympathetic recovery and optimizing neural conflict processing, providing evidence for an integrated exercise–cognition–autonomic nervous system coupling model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices for Endurance Sports)
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