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Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2022) | Viewed by 38328

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Dr. Terenzio Bertuzzi

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Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, UCSC, Via Emilia Parmense, 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
Interests: food safety; mycotoxin
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins represent a significant issue for the food and feed industry, with an impact on human health, animal health and production, and economies. Numerous notifications on the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) concern mycotoxins, with a risk decision categorized as “serious”.

Besides the “known and legislatively regulated” mycotoxins, there are other “emerging mycotoxins” that have been considered as relevant since the evidence of their incidence in food and feed is rapidly increasing.

The number and variety of samples involved in mycotoxin contamination is continuously increasing; therefore it is required the developing of appropriate extraction and purification protocols and analytical instrumental methods for an accurate determination of regulated, emerging and masked mycotoxins in different food matrices and feeds, achieving the requirement of assuring food safety along the production chain. Extraction and detection of mycotoxins should begin to incorporate green chemistry principles.

To obtain a continuous monitoring of these hazardous compounds in raw materials and final products along the production food chain, rapid, cheap and easy-to-operate analytical method are generally used; on the other hand, innovative approaches and advanced instrumental techniques, as GC-MS, LC-MS/MS and HRMS, are required to develop multi-mycotoxin methods and to identify and quantify emerging, masked and novel mycotoxins.

I hope that this Special Issue of Toxins will contribute to the advancement of analytical methods helpful to evaluate mycotoxin occurrence and diffusion in food and feed.

Prof. Dr. Terenzio Bertuzzi
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Mycotoxins
analytical methods
occurrence

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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10 pages, 663 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Reduction of Mycotoxigenic Fungi Growth and Their Mycotoxin Production by Bacillus subtilis QST 713

by Terenzio Bertuzzi, Giulia Leni, Giulia Bulla and Paola Giorni

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110797 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3100

Abstract

The use of chemical pesticides to control the occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi in crops has led to environmental and human health issues, driving the agriculture sector to a more sustainable system. Biocontrol agents such as Bacillus strains and their antimicrobial metabolites have been proposed as alternatives to chemical pesticides. In the present work, a broth obtained from a commercial product containing Bacillus subtilis QST 713 was tested for its ability to inhibit the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi as well as reduce their mycotoxin production. Mass spectrometry analysis of Bacillus subtilis broth allowed to detect the presence of 14 different lipopeptides, belonging to the iturin, fengycin, and surfactin families, already known for their antifungal properties. Bacillus subtilis broth demonstrated to be a useful tool to inhibit the growth of some of the most important mycotoxigenic fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium graminearum, Aspergillus carbonarius, and Alternaria alternata. In addition, cell-free Bacillus subtilis broth provided the most promising results against the growth of Fusarium graminearum and Alternaria alternata, where the radial growth was reduced up to 86% with respect to the untreated test. With regard to the mycotoxin reduction, raw Bacillus subtilis broth completely inhibited the production of aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and tenuazonic acid. Cell-free broth provided promising inhibitory properties toward all of the target mycotoxins, even if the results were less promising than the corresponding raw broth. In conclusion, this work showed that a commercial Bacillus subtilis, characterized by the presence of different lipopeptides, was able to reduce the growth of the main mycotoxigenic fungi and inhibit the production of related mycotoxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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10 pages, 942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variation of Aflatoxin Levels in Stored Edible Seed and Oil Samples and Risk Assessment in the Local Population

by Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Muhammad Waqas, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Sunusi Usman, Nada Basheir Ali and Muhammad Rafique Asi

Toxins 2022, 14(9), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090642 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Five hundred and twenty samples of edible seeds and oilseeds (sunflower, palm, peanut, sesame, cotton, and grapeseed) were purchased from markets, farmers, and superstores in the central cities of Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 125 (48.1%) edible seed samples from a 6 ≤ months storage period, and 127 (48.8%) from a 2 ≥ years storage period were found to be infested with AFs. The average elevated amount of AFB₁ and total AFs was observed in a 2 ≥ years storage period, i.e., 28.6 ± 4.5 and 51.3 ± 10.4 µg/kg, respectively, in sesame seeds. The minimum amount of AFB₁ and total AFs was observed in palm seed samples with a storage period of 6 ≤ months, i.e., 9.96 ± 2.4, and 11.7 ± 1.90 µg/kg, respectively. The maximum amount of AFB₁ and total AFs were observed in peanut oil samples, i.e., 21.43 ± 2.60 and 25.96 ± 4.30 µg/kg, respectively, with a storage period of 2 ≥ years. Therefore, the maximum dietary intake of 59.60 ng/kg/day was observed in oil samples stored at a ≥ 2 years storage period. The results of the present study concluded that a significant difference was found in the amounts of total AFs in edible seed samples stored at 6 ≤ months and 2 ≥ years storage periods (p < 0.05). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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10 pages, 4941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation of Aflatoxin Levels in Selected Spices Available in Retail Markets: Estimation of Exposure and Risk Assessment

by Farah Naz, Francis Verpoort, Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Nadia Naheed and Muhammad Rafique Asi

Toxins 2022, 14(9), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090597 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1935

Abstract

A total of 603 samples of selected spices from different seasons (winter and summer) were analyzed for the occurrence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), total AFs, and tocopherols. The findings revealed that 120 (38.7%) samples from the summer and 136 (46.4%) samples from the winter season were observed to be infected with AFB₁ and a large amount of AFs. The highest means of both AFB₁ and total Afs were observed in red pepper, i.e., 15.5 ± 3.90 µg/kg and 22.90 ± 4.10 µg/kg, respectively. The minimum averages of AFB₁ and total AFs were observed in cloves of 6.32 ± 1.8 and 8.40 ± 1.60 µg/kg, respectively (from the winter season). The seasonal variations in the levels of the total AFs in selected spices were observed to be nonsignificant (p ≥ 0.05), except for the levels in red pepper and ginger samples, which showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). The maximum average of the dietary intake of Afs, 4.80 µg/day/kg, was found in ginger from the winter season in individual females. Furthermore, the findings document that the maximum level of total tocopherol, i.e., 44.8 ± 9.3 mg/100 g, was observed in black pepper from the winter season. A significant difference in the concentration of total tocopherols was observed in selected spices from the summer and the winter seasons (p ≤ 0.05). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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18 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Emerging, and Masked Mycotoxins in Rice Bran and Maize from Southeast Asia

by Wipada Siri-anusornsak, Oluwatobi Kolawole, Warapa Mahakarnchanakul, Brett Greer, Awanwee Petchkongkaew, Julie Meneely, Christopher Elliott and Kanithaporn Vangnai

Toxins 2022, 14(8), 567; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080567 - 19 Aug 2022

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3734

Abstract

Raw feed materials are often contaminated with mycotoxins, and co-occurrence of mycotoxins occurs frequently. A total of 250 samples i.e., rice bran and maize from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand were analysed using state-of-the-art liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for monitoring the occurrence of regulated, emerging, and masked mycotoxins. Seven regulated mycotoxins – aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B₁, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, HT-2, and T-2 toxin were detected as well as some emerging mycotoxins, such as beauvericin, enniatin type B, stachybotrylactam, sterigmatocystin, and masked mycotoxins, specifically zearalenone-14-glucoside, and zearalenone-16-glucoside. Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent compounds identified, especially aflatoxins and fumonisin B₁ in 100% and 95% of samples, respectively. Of the emerging toxins, beauvericin and enniatin type B showed high occurrences, with more than 90% of rice bran and maize contaminated, whereas zearalenone-14-glucoside and zearalenone-16-glucoside were found in rice bran in the range of 56–60%. Regulated mycotoxins (DON and ZEN) were the most frequent mycotoxin combination with emerging mycotoxins (BEA and ENN type B) in rice bran and maize. This study indicates that mycotoxin occurrence and co-occurrence are common in raw feed materials, and it is critical to monitor mycotoxin levels in ASEAN’s feedstuffs so that mitigation strategies can be developed and implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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32 pages, 4441 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cocktails of Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens, and Other Secondary Metabolites in Diets of Dairy Cows in Austria: Inferences from Diet Composition and Geo-Climatic Factors

by Felipe Penagos-Tabares, Ratchaneewan Khiaosa-ard, Marlene Schmidt, Eva-Maria Bartl, Johanna Kehrer, Veronika Nagl, Johannes Faas, Michael Sulyok, Rudolf Krska and Qendrim Zebeli

Toxins 2022, 14(7), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070493 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3892

Abstract

Dairy production is a pivotal economic sector of Austrian and European agriculture. Dietary toxins and endocrine disruptors of natural origin such as mycotoxins and phytoestrogens can affect animal health, reproduction, and productivity. This study characterized the profile of a wide spectrum of fungal, plant, and unspecific secondary metabolites, including regulated, emerging, and modified mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and cyanogenic glucosides, in complete diets of lactating cows from 100 Austrian dairy farms. To achieve this, a validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometric (LC/ESI–MS/MS) method was employed, detecting 155 of >800 tested metabolites. Additionally, the most influential dietary and geo-climatic factors related to the dietary mycotoxin contamination of Austrian dairy cattle were recognized. We evidenced that the diets of Austrian dairy cows presented ubiquitous contamination with mixtures of mycotoxins and phytoestrogens. Metabolites derived from Fusarium spp. presented the highest concentrations, were the most recurrent, and had the highest diversity among the detected fungal compounds. Zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisin B1 were the most frequently occurring mycotoxins considered in the EU legislation, with detection frequencies >70%. Among the investigated dietary factors, inclusion of maize silage (MS) and straw in the diets was the most influential factor in contamination with Fusarium-derived and other fungal toxins and metabolites, and temperature was the most influential among the geo-climatic factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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11 pages, 700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ochratoxin A and Sterigmatocystin in Long-Ripened Grana Cheese: Occurrence, Wheel Rind Contamination and Effectiveness of Cleaning Techniques on Grated Products

by Amedeo Pietri, Giulia Leni, Annalisa Mulazzi and Terenzio Bertuzzi

Toxins 2022, 14(5), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050306 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3719

Abstract

A survey on the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and sterigmatocystin (STC) in grated cheese products obtained from hard grana-type cheeses was carried out, where 107 grated products were collected in retail outlets and analysed. OTA and STC were found in 48.6% and 94.4% of the samples, in a range from <LOD to 25.05 µg kg⁻¹ and from <LOD to 6.87 µg kg⁻¹, respectively. STC was detected in all the OTA-contaminated samples. The OTA and STC occurrence in cheese is due to environmental contamination during ripening, leading to fungal growth and mycotoxin production on the cheese surface. This statement was confirmed by analysing the surface of 16 hard grana cheese rinds, which resulted contaminated by both OTA and STC, with concentration ranging from 3 to 370 µg kg⁻¹. This finding demonstrates that rind inclusion increases the mycotoxin concentration in grated cheeses. The mycotoxin level significantly decreased from the surface (0–1.5 mm) to inner parts of cheese rinds (1.5–4.5 mm). Industrial wheel-cleaning techniques can represent a useful treatment to reduce both toxins in grated cheese products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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12 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Mycotoxin and Secondary Metabolites in Commercial and Traditional Slovak Cheese Samples

by Luana Izzo, Petra Mikušová, Sonia Lombardi, Michael Sulyok and Alberto Ritieni

Toxins 2022, 14(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020134 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3343

Abstract

Cheese represents a dairy product extremely inclined to fungal growth and mycotoxin production. The growth of fungi belonging to Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Claviceps, Alternaria, and Trichoderma genera in or on cheese leads to undesirable changes able to affect the quality of the final products. In the present investigation, a total of 68 types of commercial and traditional Slovak cheeses were analyzed to investigate the occurrence of fungal metabolites. Altogether, 13 fungal metabolites were identified and quantified. Aflatoxin M1, the only mycotoxin regulated in milk and dairy products, was not detected in any case. However, the presence of metabolites that have never been reported in cheeses, such as tryptophol at a maximum concentration level from 13.4 to 7930 µg/kg (average: 490 µg/kg), was recorded. Out of all detected metabolites, enniatin B represents the most frequently detected mycotoxin (0.06–0.71 µg/kg) in the analyzed samples. Attention is drawn to the lack of data on mycotoxins’ origin from Slovak cheeses; in fact, this is the first reported investigation. Our results indicate the presence of fungal mycotoxin contamination for which maximum permissible levels are not established, highlighting the importance of monitoring the source and producers of contamination in order to protect consumers’ health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

13 pages, 1353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxigenic Species Aspergillus parasiticus Originating from Maize Kernels Grown in Serbia

by Milica Nikolić, Iva Savić, Ana Nikolić, Marko Jauković, Vesna Kandić, Milan Stevanović and Slavica Stanković

Toxins 2021, 13(12), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120847 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2843

Abstract

In Serbia, aspergillus ear rot caused by the disease pathogen Aspergillus parasiticus (A. parasiticus) was first detected in 2012 under both field and storage conditions. Global climate shifts, primarily warming, favour the contamination of maize with aflatoxins in temperate climates, including Serbia. A five-year study (2012–2016) comprising of 46 A. parasiticus strains isolated from maize kernels was performed to observe the morphological, molecular, pathogenic, and toxigenic traits of this pathogen. The HPLC method was applied to evaluate mycotoxin concentrations in this causal agent. The A. parasiticus isolates synthesised mainly aflatoxin AFB1 (84.78%). The percentage of isolates synthesising aflatoxin AFG1 (15.22%) was considerably lower. Furthermore, the concentration of AFG1 was higher than that of AFB1 in eight isolates. The polyphase approach, used to characterise isolates, showed that they were A. parasiticus species. This identification was verified by the multiplex RLFP-PCR detection method with the use of restriction enzymes. These results form an excellent baseline for further studies with the aim of application in the production, processing, and storage of cereal grains and seeds, and in technological processes to ensure the safe production of food and feed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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Review

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26 pages, 2380 KiB

Open AccessReview

Aflatoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Based Products: Occurrence, Toxicity, Impact on Human Health, and Their Detoxification and Management Strategies

by Pradeep Kumar, Akansha Gupta, Dipendra Kumar Mahato, Shikha Pandhi, Arun Kumar Pandey, Raveena Kargwal, Sadhna Mishra, Rajat Suhag, Nitya Sharma, Vivek Saurabh, Veena Paul, Manoj Kumar, Raman Selvakumar, Shirani Gamlath, Madhu Kamle, Hesham Ali El Enshasy, Jawahir A. Mokhtar and Steve Harakeh

Toxins 2022, 14(10), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14100687 - 6 Oct 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7038

Abstract

Cereals and cereal-based products are primary sources of nutrition across the world. However, contamination of these foods with aflatoxins (AFs), secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species, has raised serious concerns. AF generation in innate substrates is influenced by several parameters, including the substrate type, fungus species, moisture content, minerals, humidity, temperature, and physical injury to the kernels. Consumption of AF-contaminated cereals and cereal-based products can lead to both acute and chronic health issues related to physical and mental maturity, reproduction, and the nervous system. Therefore, the precise detection methods, detoxification, and management strategies of AFs in cereal and cereal-based products are crucial for food safety as well as consumer health. Hence, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, chemical characteristics, biosynthetic processes, health hazards, and detection techniques of AFs, along with a focus on detoxification and management strategies that could be implemented for food safety and security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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23 pages, 1261 KiB

Open AccessReview

Nivalenol Mycotoxin Concerns in Foods: An Overview on Occurrence, Impact on Human and Animal Health and Its Detection and Management Strategies

by Pradeep Kumar, Dipendra Kumar Mahato, Akansha Gupta, Surabhi Pandey, Veena Paul, Vivek Saurabh, Arun Kumar Pandey, Raman Selvakumar, Sreejani Barua, Mandira Kapri, Manoj Kumar, Charanjit Kaur, Abhishek Dutt Tripathi, Shirani Gamlath, Madhu Kamle, Theodoros Varzakas and Sofia Agriopoulou

Toxins 2022, 14(8), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080527 - 31 Jul 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4817

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that infect a wide range of foods worldwide. Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene produced by numerous Fusarium species, has the ability to infect a variety of foods both in the field and during post-harvest handling and management. NIV is frequently found in cereal and cereal-based goods, and its strong cytotoxicity poses major concerns for both human and animal health. To address these issues, this review briefly overviews the sources, occurrence, chemistry and biosynthesis of NIV. Additionally, a brief overview of several sophisticated detection and management techniques is included, along with the implications of processing and environmental factors on the formation of NIV. This review’s main goal is to offer trustworthy and current information on NIV as a mycotoxin concern in foods, with potential mitigation measures to assure food safety and security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Detection and Identification)

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