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Toxins
Special Issues
Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins
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Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2023) | Viewed by 27048

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Dimitrios Tsitsigiannis

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Guest Editor
Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Crop Science, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 11855, Athens, Greece
Interests: mycotoxins; plant pathology; plant-microbe interactions; biological control; food safety; Integrated Management; biosensors

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Agricultural products are frequently contaminated by mycotoxins, which cause the degradation of their quantity and quality and pose potential toxic and carcinogenic effects to humans and animals. Advanced integrated mycotoxin management systems are being developed in order to predict and avoid mycotoxin contamination at pre- or post-harvest stage in several crops. Their main principles rely on the combination of different methods such as 1) biological control using, for example, atoxigenic strains, yeasts, and bacteria, 2) chemical control by application of effective plant protection products, 3) application of predictive models for mycotoxin accumulation, 4) deployment of host resistant/tolerant varieties, 5) implementation of good agricultural practices and 5) the use of innovative methods for in time detection of mycotoxin-contaminated samples, such as biosensors and diagnostic tests.

In order to achieve the aim of developing modern methods for mycotoxin management, one of the most essential guidelines is the investigation of the occurrence and the population structure of mycotoxigenic fungi in the field in relation to the ongoing climate changes that can contribute to a comprehensive recording of the existing situation of the fungal dynamics in fields and orchards.

This Special Issue will cover advances in a combination of several strategies in an Integrated Pest Management program in order to manage successfully the mycotoxin(s) contamination of crops at pre- or post-harvest level in the form of original research or review papers. The contribution of Precision Agriculture and the use of smart systems to predict, detect, diagnose, quantify and finally manage mycotoxins in the field by Decision Support Systems are of ultimate importance in the developed IPM strategies. Finally, articles that describe novel tools like nanobody technologies, molecular technologies, hyperspectral imaging in conjunction with the use of drones that can be incorporated in pre-or post-harvest integrated management systems for mycotoxins are encouraged to be submitted. The application of modern integrated management systems can significantly help establishing food safety and security and raise the public health awareness regarding mycotoxins.

Prof. Dr. Dimitrios Tsitsigiannis
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Food safety
  • Mycotoxin occurrence
  • Mycotoxin monitoring
  • Integrated Pest Management
  • Biological control
  • Chemical control
  • Host resistance
  • Predictive models
  • Good agricultural practices
  • Smart farming
  • Precision Agriculture
  • Biosensors

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 2293 KiB  
Article
Mycotoxin DON Accumulation in Wheat Grains Caused by Fusarium Head Blight Are Significantly Subjected to Inoculation Methods
by Limei Xian, Yuhui Zhang, Yi Hu, Suqin Zhu, Zhuo Wen, Chen Hua, Lei Li, Zhengxi Sun and Tao Li
Toxins 2022, 14(6), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14060409 - 15 Jun 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2640
Abstract
The disease severity and mycotoxin DON content in grains caused by fusarium head blight (FHB) have been two prioritized economical traits in wheat. Reliable phenotyping is a prerequisite for genetically improving wheat resistances to these two traits. In this study, three inoculation methods: [...] Read more.
The disease severity and mycotoxin DON content in grains caused by fusarium head blight (FHB) have been two prioritized economical traits in wheat. Reliable phenotyping is a prerequisite for genetically improving wheat resistances to these two traits. In this study, three inoculation methods: upper bilateral floret injection (UBFI), basal bilateral floret injection (BBFI), and basal rachis internode injection (BRII), were applied in a panel of 22 near-isogenic lines (NILs) contrasting in Fhb1 alleles. The results showed that inoculation methods had significant influence on both disease severity and mycotoxin accumulation in grains, and the relationship between them. UBFI method caused chronic FHB symptom characterized as slow progress of the pathogen downward from the inoculation site, which minimized the difference in disease severity of the NILs, but, unexpectedly, maximized the difference in DON content between them. The BBFI method usually caused an acute FHB symptom in susceptible lines characterized as premature spike death (PSD), which maximized the difference in disease severity, but minimized the difference in DON content in grains between resistant and susceptible lines. The BRII method occasionally caused acute FHB symptoms for susceptible lines and had relatively balanced characteristics of disease severity and DON content in grains. Therefore, two or more inoculation methods are recommended for precise and reliable evaluation of the overall resistance to FHB, including resistances to both disease spread within a spike and DON accumulation in grains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins)
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16 pages, 884 KiB  
Article
Role of Sesamia nonagrioides and Ostrinia nubilalis as Vectors of Fusarium spp. and Contribution of Corn Borer-Resistant Bt Maize to Mycotoxin Reduction
by María Arias-Martín, Miriam Haidukowski, Gema P. Farinós and Belén Patiño
Toxins 2021, 13(11), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13110780 - 4 Nov 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3606
Abstract
Maize expressing Cry1Ab insecticidal toxin (Bt maize) is an effective method to control Sesamia nonagrioides and Ostrinia nubilalis, the most damaging corn borers of southern Europe. In this area, maize is prone to Fusarium infections, which can produce mycotoxins that pose a [...] Read more.
Maize expressing Cry1Ab insecticidal toxin (Bt maize) is an effective method to control Sesamia nonagrioides and Ostrinia nubilalis, the most damaging corn borers of southern Europe. In this area, maize is prone to Fusarium infections, which can produce mycotoxins that pose a serious risk to human and animal health, causing significant economic losses in the agrifood industry. To investigate the influence of corn borer damage on the presence of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins, Bt maize ears and insect-damaged ears of non-Bt maize were collected from commercial fields in three Bt maize growing areas in Spain, and differences in contamination were assessed. Additionally, larvae of both borer species were collected to evaluate their role as vectors of these molds. Non-Bt maize ears showed significantly higher presence of F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum, and F. subglutinans than Bt maize ears. For the first time, Fusarium species have been isolated from larvae of the two species. The most frequently found mycotoxins in ears were fumonisins, with non-Bt ears being significantly more contaminated than those of Bt maize. High levels of fumonisins were shown to correlate with the occurrence of corn borers in the ear and the presence of F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins)
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24 pages, 4016 KiB  
Article
Distribution, Genetic Diversity and Biocontrol of Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus in Serbian Maize Fields
by Vanja Vlajkov, Mila Grahovac, Dragana Budakov, Marta Loc, Ivana Pajčin, Dragan Milić, Tihomir Novaković and Jovana Grahovac
Toxins 2021, 13(10), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100687 - 27 Sep 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3855
Abstract
Maize is one of the leading export products in the Republic of Serbia. As a country where economic development depends on agriculture, maize production plays a critical role as a crop of strategic importance. Potential aflatoxin contamination of maize poses a risk to [...] Read more.
Maize is one of the leading export products in the Republic of Serbia. As a country where economic development depends on agriculture, maize production plays a critical role as a crop of strategic importance. Potential aflatoxin contamination of maize poses a risk to food and feed safety and tremendous economic losses. No aflatoxin contamination of maize samples harvested in 2019 and 2020 in different localities in the Republic of Serbia was detected by the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) test and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method. On the other hand, the Cluster Amplification Patterns (CAP) analyses of the isolated Aspergillus flavus strains from 2019 maize samples confirmed the presence of key biosynthesis genes responsible for aflatoxin production. Artificial inoculation and subsequent HPLC analysis of the inoculated maize samples confirmed the high capacity of the A. flavus strains for aflatoxin production, pointing to a high risk of contamination under favorable conditions. Prevention of aflatoxin contamination is primarily based on A. flavus control, where biocontrol agents play a significant role as sustainable disease management tools. In this study, antagonistic activity screening of the novel strains belonging to the Bacillus genus indicated superior suppression of A. flavus strains by two Bacillus strains isolated from the rhizosphere of Phaseolus vulgaris. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins)
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18 pages, 7789 KiB  
Article
Environmental Conditions Affecting Ochratoxin A during Solar Drying of Grapes: The Case of Tunnel and Open Air-Drying
by Charalampos Templalexis, Paola Giorni, Diamanto Lentzou, Sabrina Mesisca, Dimitrios I. Tsitsigiannis, Paola Battilani and Georgios Xanthopoulos
Toxins 2021, 13(6), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060400 - 3 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2636
Abstract
Drying optimization, to mitigate fungal growth and Ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination is a key topic for raisin and currant production. Specific indicators of environmental conditions and drying properties were analyzed using two seedless grape varieties (Crimson—red and Thompson—white), artificially inoculated [...] Read more.
Drying optimization, to mitigate fungal growth and Ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination is a key topic for raisin and currant production. Specific indicators of environmental conditions and drying properties were analyzed using two seedless grape varieties (Crimson—red and Thompson—white), artificially inoculated with Aspergillus carbonarius under open air and tunnel drying. The air temperature (T), relative humidity, grape surface temperature (Ts) and water activity throughout the drying experiment, the grapes’ moisture content and the fungal colonization and OTA contamination during the drying process and their interactions were recorded and critically analyzed. Drying properties such as the water diffusivity (Deff) and peel resistance to water transfer were estimated. The grapes Ts was 5–7 °C higher in tunnel vs. open air–drying; the infected grapes had higher maximum Ts vs. the control (around 4–6 °C). OTA contamination was higher in tunnel vs. open air–dried grapes, but fungal colonies showed the opposite trend. The Deff was higher in tunnel than in the open air–drying by 54%; the infected grapes had more than 70% higher Deff than the control, differences explained by factors affecting the water transport. This study highlighted CFU and OTA indicators that affect the water availability between red and white grapes during open air and tunnel drying, estimated by the Deff and peel resistance. This raises new issues for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins)
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26 pages, 2482 KiB  
Article
Incentives to Stimulate European Wheat Farmers to Adapt Their Fusarium Species Mycotoxin Management
by Esmée M. Janssen, Monique C. M. Mourits, Alfons G. J. M. Oude Lansink and H. J. van der Fels-Klerx
Toxins 2021, 13(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13020144 - 14 Feb 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2490
Abstract
Fusarium species infection in wheat can lead to Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) and contamination with mycotoxins. To fully exploit more recent insights into FHB and mycotoxin management, farmers might need to adapt their agronomic management, which can be stimulated through incentives. This study [...] Read more.
Fusarium species infection in wheat can lead to Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) and contamination with mycotoxins. To fully exploit more recent insights into FHB and mycotoxin management, farmers might need to adapt their agronomic management, which can be stimulated through incentives. This study aimed to identify incentives to stimulate European farmers to adapt their agronomic management to reduce FHB and related mycotoxins in wheat. A questionnaire was distributed among 224 wheat farmers from Italy, the Netherlands, Serbia, and the United Kingdom. Using the respondents’ data, Bayesian Network modelling was applied to estimate the probability that farmers would adapt their current agronomic management under eight different incentives given the conditions set by their farm and farmer characteristics. Results show that most farmers would adapt their current agronomic management under the incentives “paid extra when wheat contains low levels of mycotoxins” and “wheat is tested for the presence of mycotoxins for free”. The most effective incentive depended on farm and farmer characteristics, such as country, crop type, size of arable land, soil type, education, and mycotoxin knowledge. Insights into the farmer characteristics related to incentives can help stakeholders in the wheat supply chain, such as farmer cooperatives and the government, to design tailor-made incentive plans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins)
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Review

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33 pages, 1668 KiB  
Review
Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin Contamination, Impact on Health and Food Security, and Management Strategies in Pakistan
by Maryam Ajmal, Wendy Bedale, Abida Akram and Jae-Hyuk Yu
Toxins 2022, 14(12), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14120845 - 2 Dec 2022
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 10272
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been identified to date, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1) are the most [...] Read more.
Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been identified to date, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1) are the most common. Over 25 species of Aspergillus have been shown to produce AFs, with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius being the most important and well-known AF-producing fungi. These ubiquitous molds can propagate on agricultural commodities to produce AFs in fields and during harvesting, processing, transportation, and storage. Countries with warmer climates and that produce foods susceptible to AF contamination shoulder a substantial portion of the global AF burden. Pakistan’s warm climate promotes the growth of toxigenic fungi, resulting in frequent AF contamination of human foods and animal feeds. The potential for contamination in Pakistan is exacerbated by improper storage conditions and a lack of regulatory limits and enforcement mechanisms. High levels of AFs in common commodities produced in Pakistan are a major food safety problem, posing serious health risks to the population. Furthermore, aflatoxin contamination contributes to economic losses by limiting exports of these commodities. In this review, recent information regarding the fungal producers of AFs, prevalence of AF contamination of foods and feed, current regulations, and AF prevention and removal strategies are summarized, with a major focus on Pakistan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Integrated Management of Mycotoxins)
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