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Toxins
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Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin...
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Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin - the Memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 16970

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Antonio Moretti

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Guest Editor
Institute of Science of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, BA, Italy
Interests: plant pathology; mycology; fungal genetics; mycotoxicology; mycotoxins; food microbiology; food safety
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Antonio F. Logrieco

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Guest Editor
Institute of Sciences of Food Production, ISPA-CNR, Via G. Amendola, 122/O, I-70126 Bari, Italy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Fungi can produce a wide array of secondary metabolites. Many of these metabolites can express their toxicity as phytotoxins in plants causing disease symptoms on different plant organs. Other metabolites, although produced by fungi in the field during the plant colonization process, have no known harmful activity toward plants but can be dangerous as mycotoxins if they are consumed by humans or animals. Finally, some mycotoxins, e.g., the trichothecenes produced by Fusarium species, can also act as virulence factors toward plants and are toxic to humans and animals. In response to these metabolites, some plants produce enzymes that modify the metabolite’s structure. These modified compounds, termed “masked” or “modified” mycotoxins, are less toxic to plants. When modified mycotoxins are ingested by humans or animals, the modifications can be reversed, and the toxins become bioavailable within the intestinal tract and a renewed health concern. The Special Issue, dedicated to the memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico, solicits scientific contributions on both phytotoxins and mycotoxins to reflect the main pillars of the scientific activity of this pioneering researcher on toxigenic fungi. A second objective of this Special Issue is to highlight that phytotoxins and mycotoxins are two different sides of the same coin and to demonstrate the great abilities of toxigenic fungi to use secondary metabolites to colonize environmental substrates and to preserve themselves.

Dr. Antonio Moretti
Prof. Dr. Antonio F. Logrieco
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • toxicity to plants
  • mycotoxins as a pathogenicity factor
  • masked mycotoxins
  • food safety

Published Papers (5 papers)

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16 pages, 4748 KiB  
Article
Host-Species Variation and Environment Influence Endophyte Symbiosis and Mycotoxin Levels in Chinese Oxytropis Species
by Chenchen Guo, Li Zhang, Qianqian Zhao, Manfred Beckmann, Helen Phillips, Huizhen Meng, Chonghui Mo, Luis A. J. Mur and Wei He
Toxins 2022, 14(3), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030181 - 28 Feb 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1966
Abstract
Oxytropis plants are widely distributed in the grasslands in northern China. Some Oxytropis species have been reported to contain the mycotoxin swainsonine, an alkaloid which causes poisoning in livestock, referred to as locoism. Previous studies showed that endophytic fungi (Alternaria oxytropis [...] Read more.
Oxytropis plants are widely distributed in the grasslands in northern China. Some Oxytropis species have been reported to contain the mycotoxin swainsonine, an alkaloid which causes poisoning in livestock, referred to as locoism. Previous studies showed that endophytic fungi (Alternaria oxytropis) symbiotically associate with these Oxytropis species to produce swainsonine. However, the influence of variation within the Oxytropis genus on the fixation or loss of symbiosis and toxicity is poorly understood, as is the influence of environmental factors. Here we used a collection of 17 common Oxytropis species sampled in northern China to assess genetic diversity using genotyping by sequencing which was compared with the levels of the endophyte and swainsonine. Results showed that nine Oxytropis species have detectable A. oxytropis colonisation, and seven Oxytropis species contain sufficient swainsonine to be considered poisonous, whereas the rest may be non-toxic. Species variation rather than the genetic lineage was associated with the fixation or loss of endophyte and swainsonine production, which appears to have resulted from genetic drift. Genotype × Environment (G × E) effects were also found to influence endophyte and swainsonine levels amongst species of the Oxytropis genus. Our study will provide a better understanding about the evolutionary basis of A. oxytropis symbiosis and swainsonine biosynthesis in locoweeds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin - the Memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico)
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12 pages, 543 KiB  
Article
Occurrence and Characterization of Penicillium Species Isolated from Post-Harvest Apples in Lebanon
by Wassim Habib, Mario Masiello, Hala Chahine-Tsouvalakis, Zahraa Al Moussawi, Carine Saab, Salwa Tohmé Tawk, Luca Piemontese, Michele Solfrizzo, Antonio Francesco Logrieco, Antonio Moretti and Antonia Susca
Toxins 2021, 13(10), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100730 - 16 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2451
Abstract
The apple is one of the most important fruit tree crops in the Mediterranean region. Lebanon, in particular, is among the top apple producer countries in the Middle East; however, recently, several types of damage, particularly rot symptoms, have been detected on fruits [...] Read more.
The apple is one of the most important fruit tree crops in the Mediterranean region. Lebanon, in particular, is among the top apple producer countries in the Middle East; however, recently, several types of damage, particularly rot symptoms, have been detected on fruits in cold storage. This study aims to identify the causal agents of apple decay in Lebanese post-harvest facilities and characterize a set of 39 representative strains of the toxigenic fungus Penicillium. The results demonstrated that blue mould was the most frequent fungal disease associated with apples showing symptoms of decay after 3–4 months of storage at 0 °C, with an average frequency of 76.5% and 80.6% on cv. Red and cv. Golden Delicious apples, respectively. The morphological identification and phylogenetic analysis of benA gene showed that most Penicillium strains (87.2%) belong to P. expansum species whereas the remaining strains (12.8%) belong to P. solitum. Furthermore, 67.7% of P. expansum strains produced patulin when grown on apple puree for 14 days at 25 °C with values ranging from 10.7 mg kg−1 to 125.9 mg kg−1, whereas all P. solitum did not produce the mycotoxin. This study highlights the presence of Penicillium spp. and their related mycotoxin risk during apple storage and calls for the implementation of proper measures to decrease the risk of mycotoxin contamination of apple fruit products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin - the Memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico)
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17 pages, 2691 KiB  
Article
Enniatin B and Deoxynivalenol Activity on Bread Wheat and on Fusarium Species Development
by Luisa Ederli, Giovanni Beccari, Francesco Tini, Irene Bergamini, Ilaria Bellezza, Roberto Romani and Lorenzo Covarelli
Toxins 2021, 13(10), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100728 - 15 Oct 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2508
Abstract
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a devastating wheat disease, mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum (FG)—a deoxynivalenol (DON)-producing species. However, Fusarium avenaceum (FA), able to biosynthesize enniatins (ENNs), has recently increased its relevance worldwide, often in co-occurrence with FG. While DON is a well-known [...] Read more.
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a devastating wheat disease, mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum (FG)—a deoxynivalenol (DON)-producing species. However, Fusarium avenaceum (FA), able to biosynthesize enniatins (ENNs), has recently increased its relevance worldwide, often in co-occurrence with FG. While DON is a well-known mycotoxin, ENN activity, also in association with DON, is poorly understood. This study aims to explore enniatin B (ENB) activity, alone or combined with DON, on bread wheat and on Fusarium development. Pure ENB, DON, and ENB+DON (10 mg kg−1) were used to assess the impacts on seed germination, seedling growth, cell death induction (trypan blue staining), chlorophyll content, and oxidative stress induction (malondialdehyde quantification). The effect on FG and FA growth was tested using ENB, DON, and ENB+DON (10, 50, and 100 mg kg−1). Synergistic activity in the reduction of seed germination, growth, and chlorophyll degradation was observed. Conversely, antagonistic interaction in cell death and oxidative stress induction was found, with DON counteracting cellular stress produced by ENB. Fusarium species responded to mycotoxins in opposite directions. ENB inhibited FG development, while DON promoted FA growth. These results highlight the potential role of ENB in cell death control, as well as in fungal competition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin - the Memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico)
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14 pages, 782 KiB  
Article
Mycotoxin Profile and Phylogeny of Pathogenic Alternaria Species Isolated from Symptomatic Tomato Plants in Lebanon
by Wassim Habib, Mario Masiello, Romy El Ghorayeb, Elvis Gerges, Antonia Susca, Giuseppe Meca, Juan M. Quiles, Antonio F. Logrieco and Antonio Moretti
Toxins 2021, 13(8), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13080513 - 22 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3203
Abstract
The tomato is one of the most consumed agri-food products in Lebanon. Several fungal pathogens, including Alternaria species, can infect tomato plants during the whole growing cycle. Alternaria infections cause severe production and economic losses in field and during storage. In addition, Alternaria [...] Read more.
The tomato is one of the most consumed agri-food products in Lebanon. Several fungal pathogens, including Alternaria species, can infect tomato plants during the whole growing cycle. Alternaria infections cause severe production and economic losses in field and during storage. In addition, Alternaria species represent a serious toxicological risk since they are able to produce a wide range of mycotoxins, associated with different toxic activities on human and animal health. Several Alternaria species were detected on tomatoes, among which the most important are A. solani, A. alternata, and A. arborescens. A set of 49 Alternaria strains isolated from leaves and stems of diseased tomato plants were characterised by using a polyphasic approach. All strains were included in the recently defined phylogenetic Alternaria section and grouped in three well-separated sub-clades, namely A. alternata (24 out of 49), A. arborescens (12 out of 49), and A. mali morpho-species (12 out of 49). One strain showed high genetic similarity with an A.limoniasperae reference strain. Chemical analyses showed that most of the Alternaria strains, cultured on rice, were able to produce alternariol (AOH), alternariol methyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT) and tenuazonic acid (TA), with values up to 5634, 16,006, 5156, and 4507 mg kg−1, respectively. In addition, 66% of the strains were able to co-produce simultaneously the four mycotoxins investigated. The pathogenicity test carried out on 10 Alternaria strains, representative of phylogenetic sub-clades, revealed that they were all pathogenic on tomato fruits. No significant difference among strains was observed, although A. alternata and A. arborescens strains were slightly more aggressive than A. mali morpho-species strains. This paper reports new insights on mycotoxin profiles, genetic variability, and pathogenicity of Alternaria species on tomatoes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin - the Memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico)
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48 pages, 725 KiB  
Review
Key Global Actions for Mycotoxin Management in Wheat and Other Small Grains
by John F. Leslie, Antonio Moretti, Ákos Mesterházy, Maarten Ameye, Kris Audenaert, Pawan K. Singh, Florence Richard-Forget, Sofía N. Chulze, Emerson M. Del Ponte, Alemayehu Chala, Paola Battilani and Antonio F. Logrieco
Toxins 2021, 13(10), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100725 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5474
Abstract
Mycotoxins in small grains are a significant and long-standing problem. These contaminants may be produced by members of several fungal genera, including Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Interventions that limit contamination can be made both pre-harvest and [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins in small grains are a significant and long-standing problem. These contaminants may be produced by members of several fungal genera, including Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Interventions that limit contamination can be made both pre-harvest and post-harvest. Many problems and strategies to control them and the toxins they produce are similar regardless of the location at which they are employed, while others are more common in some areas than in others. Increased knowledge of host-plant resistance, better agronomic methods, improved fungicide management, and better storage strategies all have application on a global basis. We summarize the major pre- and post-harvest control strategies currently in use. In the area of pre-harvest, these include resistant host lines, fungicides and their application guided by epidemiological models, and multiple cultural practices. In the area of post-harvest, drying, storage, cleaning and sorting, and some end-product processes were the most important at the global level. We also employed the Nominal Group discussion technique to identify and prioritize potential steps forward and to reduce problems associated with human and animal consumption of these grains. Identifying existing and potentially novel mechanisms to effectively manage mycotoxin problems in these grains is essential to ensure the safety of humans and domesticated animals that consume these grains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytotoxins and Mycotoxins: Two Different Sides of the Same Coin - the Memory of Prof. Antonio Bottalico)
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