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1. “SARS-CoV-2 T Cell Responses Elicited by COVID-19 Vaccines or Infection Are Expected to Remain Robust against Omicron”
by Syed Faraz Ahmed, Ahmed Abdul Quadeer and Matthew R. McKay
Viruses 2022, 14(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14010079
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/1/79

2. “Structural Assembly of Qβ Virion and Its Diverse Forms of Virus-like Particles”
by Jeng-Yih Chang, Karl V. Gorzelnik, Jirapat Thongchol and Junjie Zhang
Viruses 2022, 14(2), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14020225
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/2/225

3. “Mapping of Antibody Epitopes on the Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Nucleoprotein”
by Boniface Pongombo Lombe, Takeshi Saito, Hiroko Miyamoto, Akina Mori-Kajihara, Masahiro Kajihara, Masayuki Saijo, Justin Masumu, Takanari Hattori, Manabu Igarashi and Ayato Takada
Viruses 2022, 14(3), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14030544
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/3/544

4. “Structural Insight into KsBcl-2 Mediated Apoptosis Inhibition by Kaposi Sarcoma Associated Herpes Virus”
by Chathura D. Suraweera, Mark G. Hinds and Marc Kvansakul
Viruses 2022, 14(4), 738; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14040738
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/4/738

5. “SARS-CoV-2 Causes Lung Inflammation through Metabolic Reprogramming and RAGE”
by Charles N. S. Allen, Maryline Santerre, Sterling P. Arjona, Lea J. Ghaleb, Muna Herzi, Megan D. Llewellyn, Natalia Shcherbik and Bassel E. Sawaya
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14050983
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/5/983

6. “Evidence of RedOX Imbalance during Zika Virus Infection Promoting the Formation of Disulfide-Bond-Dependent Oligomers of the Envelope Protein”
by Grégorie Lebeau, Jonathan Turpin, Etienne Frumence, Daed El Safadi, Wissal Harrabi, Philippe Desprès, Pascale Krejbich-Trotot and Wildriss Viranaïcken
Viruses 2022, 14(6), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14061131
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/6/1131

7. “Phosphomimetic S207D Lysyl–tRNA Synthetase Binds HIV-1 5′UTR in an Open Conformation and Increases RNA Dynamics”
by William A. Cantara, Chathuri Pathirage, Joshua Hatterschide, Erik D. Olson and Karin Musier-Forsyth
Viruses 2022, 14(7), 1556; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14071556
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/7/1556

8. “TRIM7 Restricts Coxsackievirus and Norovirus Infection by Detecting the C-Terminal Glutamine Generated by 3C Protease Processing”
by Jakub Luptak, Donna L. Mallery, Aminu S. Jahun, Anna Albecka, Dean Clift, Osaid Ather, Greg Slodkowicz, Ian Goodfellow and Leo C. James
Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1610; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081610
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/8/1610

9. “Evaluation of Virulence in Cynomolgus Macaques Using a Virus Preparation Enriched for the Extracellular Form of Monkeypox Virus”
by Eric M. Mucker, Josh D. Shamblin, Arthur J. Goff, Todd M. Bell, Christopher Reed, Nancy A. Twenhafel, Jennifer Chapman, Marc Mattix, Derron Alves, Robert F. Garry and Lisa E. Hensley
Viruses 2022, 14(9), 1993; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14091993
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/9/1993

10. “Biophysical Modeling of SARS-CoV-2 Assembly: Genome Condensation and Budding”
by Siyu Li and Roya Zandi
Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2089; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14102089
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/10/2089

11. “Integrated Omics Reveal Time-Resolved Insights into T4 Phage Infection of E. coli on Proteome and Transcriptome Levels”
by Maik Wolfram-Schauerte, Nadiia Pozhydaieva, Madita Viering, Timo Glatter and Katharina Höfer
Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2502; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14112502
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/11/2502

12. “Novel 3′ Proximal Replication Elements in Umbravirus Genomes”
by Philip Z. Johnson, Hannah M. Reuning, Sayanta Bera, Feng Gao, Zhiyou Du and Anne E. Simon
Viruses 2022, 14(12), 2615; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14122615
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/12/2615

We are thrilled to announce a successful series of webinars organized by a Viruses-affiliated society—the Global Virus Network (GVN). The Global Virus Network is an essential and critical defense against viral disease. It is a coalition comprised of leading virologists around the world working to advance knowledge about how viruses cause us to be ill and to develop drugs and vaccines to lower the likelihood and severity of illness, as well as to prevent death.

On 26 November 2024, the GVN collaborated with Dr. Tony Schountz to present a webinar titled “Jamaican Fruit Bats as an Experimental Model for Virology and Immunology”. Dr. Tony Schountz, Ph.D., is a professor at the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, at Colorado State University, USA. He is an accomplished virologist and immunologist with expertise in the study of virus–host interactions in reservoir species.

Following the mentioned collaboration, on 10 December 2024, the GVN welcomed Dr. Esteban Domingo for a fascinating exploration of SARS-CoV-2 genomes. The webinar, titled “Quasispecies and error catastrophe: the “be or not to be” of SARS-CoV-2 genomes”, delved into the complexity and variability of SARS-CoV-2 genomes, providing valuable knowledge and insights to the attendees. Keep an eye on their webpage for their next webinars!

Viruses (ISSN: 1999-4915) would like to congratulate the Global Virus Network for the success of their webinars and their great impact on as well as contribution to science. Viruses also cooperates with other societies, such as the American Society for Virology (ASV), the Spanish Society for Virology (SEV), the Canadian Society for Virology (CSV), the Italian Society for Virology (SIV-ISV), the Australasian Virology Society (AVS), and others affiliated with Viruses. For details, please visit https://www.mdpi.com/journal/viruses/societies.

Authors: Kentaro Yamada¹, Di Cao¹, Ning Li¹, Roland W. Herzog¹, Dongsheng Duan², Sandeep R.P. Kumar¹ 

¹Department of Pediatrics, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, USA;
²Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA. 

Correspondence:
Sandeep R. P. Kumar, Ph.D.
Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research
Department of Pediatrics
Indiana University
1044 W. Walnut Street
Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
E-mail: sankuma@iu.edu 

In the context of muscle gene delivery, we recently demonstrated in a murine model that the innate sensing of adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors and their encoded transgenes in muscle tissue is quite complex and involves multiple innate sensors and associated pathways¹. Innate immune sensors recognize unique molecular structures associated with invading microbes and trigger a rapid cascade of events, which enables communication with the key players involved in adaptive immunity to mount an effective anti-microbial response. Though critical to fighting off invading microbes, innate immune responses are one of the major impediments to the success of viral vector-based gene therapies to treat genetic diseases. Among the various viral vectors, AAV-based vectors are preferred for in vivo gene delivery due to their high degree of tissue tropism and comparatively low immunogenic profile². However, the immunotoxicity observed in multiple clinical trials clearly indicates that AAV vectors are capable of activating the host immune system and rendering gene therapy ineffective. Despite the fact that multiple AAV-based gene therapy products have received regulatory approval, the immunogenicity of AAV and its derivative vectors remains incompletely understood. Over the past 15 years, multiple innate immune sensors such as toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 (AAV capsid sensing), TLR9 (AAV genome sensing), and MDA5-MAVS (dsRNA sensing) have been implicated in AAV immunogenicity³. Among these, TLR9 and the downstream adaptor molecule, myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), are most firmly established as the drivers of anti-AAV responses. To prevent TLR9-mediated immune responses, strategies such as the removal of unmethylated CpG motifs (which are potential TLR9 agonists) or the incorporation of TLR9 inhibitory DNA sequences (such as inflammation-inhibiting oligonucleotide 2 (io2)) in the therapeutic gene expression cassette are being employed^4,5. Recently, we have uncovered a TLR9-independent innate sensing pathway that activates cellular immune responses to AAV-encoded transgene products in the liver⁶. This pathway instead utilizes cytokines IL-1a and IL-1b for the induction of IL-1R1–MyD88 signaling but does not rely on the inflammasome machinery (Fig. 1a). 

Figure 1. Innate immune sensors implicated in cellular response to AAV encoded transgene product following hepatic (a) and muscle (b) directed gene delivery. Strategies to prevent TLR9 activation such as depletion of unmethylated CpG motifs from AAV expression cassette are already in clinical use. TLR9 inhibitory sequences such as io2 can be incorporated in the expression cassette to further prevent TLR9 activation due to unmethylated CpG motifs in AAV ITRs. Anakinra, a recombinant version of naturally occurring IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) and Rilonacept, a fusion protein to neutralize IL-1a and IL-1b are already in clinics to treat other disease indications and can be repurposed for AAV gene therapy application. TLR3 antagonists are only available experimentally but not as approved medication. 

Skeletal muscle is one of the target tissues for AAV-mediated gene therapy to treat neuromuscular diseases⁷. Therefore, it is prudent to understand the mechanisms of AAV-driven immune responses following intramuscular gene delivery. Compared to hepatic gene transfer, the intramuscular route of vector administration is typically more prone to immune responses against the transgene product, including CD8⁺ T cell responses through TLR9>MyD88-mediated activation. In our study¹, we asked two questions. First, whether IL-1 signaling is important for CD8⁺ T cell activation against the transgene product expressed in the skeletal muscle, and second, whether additional innate sensing pathways are involved¹. To address these questions, we utilized a variety of strategies to dampen TLR9 activation (either by reducing the CpG content or the incorporation of io2 in the expression cassette) or to inhibit both TLR9 activation and IL-1R1 signaling. 

We utilized muscle-tropic AAV serotype 1 vectors that encoded chicken ovalbumin (OVA) under the control of the ubiquitous cytomegalovirus enhancer/human elongation factor-1α (CMV/EF1α) promoter or the muscle-specific promoter CK8. Additional AAV expression cassettes that either lacked CpG motifs or carried io2 alone or in combination with CpG depletion were also packaged in AAV1. In total, we evaluated five different AAV expression cassettes (Table 1). Two different doses of CMV/EF1a AAV1 vectors (2x10¹⁰ or 2x10¹¹ vector genomes/mouse) were injected into the quadriceps muscle of mice lacking individual innate sensors. In some experimental groups, IL-1 signaling was blocked by a combination of a-IL-1a and a-IL-1b antibodies. Flow cytometry was employed to monitor the kinetics of OVA-specific CD8⁺ T cells in peripheral blood, and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to quantitate a-OVA IgGs in the plasma over 6 weeks. 

 Table 1: AAV constructs used in this study.

We first noticed a discrepancy in the need for TLR9 innate sensing between single-stranded (ss) and self-complimentary (sc) AAV vectors. The innate sensing of scAAV seemed to rely more strongly on TLR9 sensing. However, the innate sensing of ssAAV involved a number of different innate signaling pathways including TLR9, IL-1R1, and potentially TLR3 (Fig. 1b). The requirement for a single pathway was vector-dose-dependent. At a low dose, the inhibition of either of these signaling pathways significantly reduced the CD8⁺ T cell response against the transgene product. Interestingly, at a high vector dose, cellular responses were driven by a number of redundant pathways, including TLR9 and IL-1R1 signaling. Blocking one of these innate sensing pathways did not impact the response against the transgene product, whereas simultaneous blockade of both TLR9 and IL-1R1 signaling reduced the CD8⁺ T cell responses (Fig. 1b). Moreover, mice lacking downstream adaptor molecules such as MyD88 and TBK1 had minimal CD8⁺ T cell responses. We also found evidence for the involvement of RNA innate sensing via the TLR3-TRIF pathway. Taken together, these results clearly indicate that multiple innate pathways play a role in driving cellular responses during intramuscular gene transfer. Nevertheless, we did not find evidence of cytoplasmic DNA or RNA sensors being required, with the caveat that these results were entirely based on experiments performed in knockout mice (which may have skewed the results and therefore, they are not entirely conclusive). 

We examined whether genome engineering by CpG depletion or the incorporation of io2 in the AAV expression cassette would affect the immune response at a high dose. Interestingly, individually, these modifications had no impact. However, the presence of io2 in the AAV expression cassette in combination with the inhibition of IL-1R1 signaling was effective in reducing (but not preventing) the CD8⁺ T cell response against the transgene product. Surprisingly, the combined use of CpG depletion and IL-1R1 blockade failed to have a similar effect. Combining CpG depletion with io2 in a single AAV expression cassette reduced the CD8⁺ T cell response (which, however, was not further reduced when combined with IL-1R1 inhibition). These results illustrate the complexities and challenges of eliminating CD8⁺ T cell activation through innate immune blockade at high intramuscular vector doses. Even very low frequencies of CD8⁺ T cell responses in peripheral blood were associated with a loss of expression in the muscle. Nonetheless, we ultimately succeeded in achieving sustained transgene expression in skeletal muscle with minimal circulating or infiltrating CD8⁺ T cells when using a muscle-specific promoter along with CpG depletion and inclusion of the io2 sequence (raising the question of whether io2 inhibits additional pathways besides TLR9). 

In conclusion, we demonstrated the dose-dependent innate sensing of AAV-encoded transgene products following muscle gene transfer. Multiple innate signaling pathways (including TLR9, IL-1R1, and, potentially, TLR3) contribute to CD8⁺ T cell activation in AAV muscle gene transfer. Because of this redundancy, the blockade of multiple innate signaling pathways would be necessary to reduce CD8⁺ T cell responses against the transgene product. Further, we provided evidence that genome engineering (such as CpG motif removal or the incorporation of the TLR9 inhibitory sequence io2), could be beneficial in minimizing these cellular responses. Future work may reveal why the combination of TLR9 and IL-1R1 inhibition was effective in some but not other instances. It should be pointed out that blocking multiple innate signaling pathways, while helping to reduce CD8⁺ T cell responses, had no impact on antibody formation against the transgene product. Similarly, though the use of the muscle-specific promoter mitigated CD8⁺ T cell responses and provided long-lasting local transgene expression, this approach failed to prevent the antibody response. 

References:

1. Li N, Kumar SRP, Cao D, et al. Redundancy in Innate Immune Pathways That Promote CD8(+) T-Cell Responses in AAV1 Muscle Gene Transfer. Viruses 2024;16(10), doi:10.3390/v16101507
2. Colella P, Ronzitti G, Mingozzi F. Emerging Issues in AAV-Mediated In Vivo Gene Therapy. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2018;8(87-104, doi:10.1016/j.omtm.2017.11.007
3. Cao D, Byrne BJ, de Jong YP, et al. Innate Immune Sensing of Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors. Hum Gene Ther 2024;35(13-14):451-463, doi:10.1089/hum.2024.040
4. Wright JF. Quantification of CpG Motifs in rAAV Genomes: Avoiding the Toll. Mol Ther 2020;28(8):1756-1758, doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.07.006
5. Chan YK, Wang SK, Chu CJ, et al. Engineering adeno-associated viral vectors to evade innate immune and inflammatory responses. Sci Transl Med 2021;13(580), doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abd3438
6. Kumar SRP, Biswas M, Cao D, et al. TLR9-independent CD8(+) T cell responses in hepatic AAV gene transfer through IL-1R1-MyD88 signaling. Mol Ther 2024;32(2):325-339, doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2023.11.029
7. Wang JH, Gessler DJ, Zhan W, et al. Adeno-associated virus as a delivery vector for gene therapy of human diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024;9(1):78, doi:10.1038/s41392-024-01780-w.

“A Review on Chikungunya Virus Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Current Vaccine Development”
by Thaise Yasmine Vasconcelos de Lima Cavalcanti, Mylena Ribeiro Pereira, Sergio Oliveira de Paula and Rafael Freitas de Oliveira Franca
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 969; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14050969
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/5/969

“Viral Shrimp Diseases Listed by the OIE: A Review”
by Dain Lee, Young-Bin Yu, Jae-Ho Choi, A-Hyun Jo, Su-Min Hong, Ju-Chan Kang and Jun-Hwan Kim
Viruses 2022, 14(3), 585; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14030585
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/3/585

“Hepatitis B Virus-Associated Hepatocellular Carcinoma”
by Giacomo Emanuele Maria Rizzo, Giuseppe Cabibbo and Antonio Craxì
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14050986
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/5/986

“Pseudorabies Virus: From Pathogenesis to Prevention Strategies”
by Hui-Hua Zheng, Peng-Fei Fu, Hong-Ying Chen and Zhen-Ya Wang
Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081638
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/8/1638

“Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review”
by Harapan Harapan, Youdiil Ophinni, Dewi Megawati, Andri Frediansyah, Sukamto S. Mamada, Mirnawati Salampe, Talha Bin Emran, Wira Winardi, Raisha Fathima, Salin Sirinam et al.
Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2155; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14102155
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/10/2155

“Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus: An Updated Overview of Virus Epidemiology, Virulence Variation Patterns and Virus–Host Interactions”
by Yuanzhu Zhang, Yiwu Chen, Jian Zhou, Xi Wang, Lerong Ma, Jianing Li, Lin Yang, Hongming Yuan Daxin Pang and Hongsheng Ouyang
Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2434; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14112434
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/11/2434

“Current Trend in Antiviral Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis B”
by Rong-Nan Chien and Yun-Fan Liaw
Viruses 2022, 14(2), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14020434
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/2/43

“PEDV: Insights and Advances into Types, Function, Structure, and Receptor Recognition”
by Feng Lin, Huanyu Zhang, Linquan Li, Yang Yang, Xiaodong Zou, Jiahuan Chen and Xiaochun Tang
Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081744
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/8/1744

“In Vitro Techniques and Measurements of Phage Characteristics That Are Important for Phage Therapy Success”
by Tea Glonti and Jean-Paul Pirnay
Viruses 2022, 14(7), 1490; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14071490
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/7/1490

“Calicivirus Infection in Cats”
by Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Margaret J. Hosie, Katrin Hartmann, Herman Egberink, Uwe Truyen, Séverine Tasker, Sándor Belák, Corine Boucraut-Baralon, Tadeusz Frymus, Albert Lloret et al.
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14050937
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/5/937

We extend our heartfelt congratulations to the 685 Editorial Board Members of our journals – from 39 different countries and territories – who have been recognized as Highly Cited Researchers for 2024 by Clarivate. This distinction highlights their exceptional scientific achievements and significant contributions, which transcend academic boundaries to advance global knowledge, sustainability, security, and well-being.

Clarivate's annual Highly Cited Researcher™ list identifies the most influential scientists of the past decade, whose work has had a profound and widespread impact across various scientific and social science disciplines. Their impactful papers rank among the top 1% by citations in one or more of the 21 fields analyzed within the "Essential Science Indicators," marking them as leaders in their respective domains.

"Highly Cited Researchers have demonstrated significant and broad influence in their field(s) of research," according to Clarivate. In 2024, a total of 6,886 Highly Cited Researcher designations were awarded to 6,636 individuals.

The following is a list of MDPI's Editorial Board Members named Highly Cited Researchers in 2024. We congratulate them for their achievement and their contributions to advancing knowledge in their respective fields.

“Profiling the Interaction between Human Serum Albumin and Clinically Relevant HIV Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors”
by Andreia Costa-Tuna, Otávio A. Chaves, Zaida L. Almeida, Rita S. Cunha, João Pina and Carlos Serpa
Viruses 2024, 16(4), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16040491
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/4/491

“Human Herpes Virus-6 (HHV-6) Reactivation after Hematopoietic Cell Transplant and Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR)- T Cell Therapy: A Shifting Landscape”
by Eleftheria Kampouri, Guy Handley and Joshua A. Hill
Viruses 2024, 16(4), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16040498
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/4/498

“Prevalence of Astroviruses in Different Animal Species in Poland”
by Konrad Kuczera, Anna Orłowska, Marcin Smreczak, Maciej Frant, Paweł Trębas and Jerzy Rola
Viruses 2024, 16(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16010080
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/1/80

“Functional Impacts of Epitranscriptomic m⁶A Modification on HIV-1 Infection”
by Stacia Phillips, Tarun Mishra, Siyu Huang and Li Wu
Viruses 2024, 16(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16010127
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/1/127

“Molecular Survey on Porcine Parvoviruses (PPV1-7) and Their Association with Major Pathogens in Reproductive Failure Outbreaks in Northern Italy”
by Giulia Faustini, Claudia Maria Tucciarone, Giovanni Franzo, Anna Donneschi, Maria Beatrice Boniotti, Giovanni Loris Alborali and Michele Drigo
Viruses 2024, 16(1), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16010157
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/1/157

“Macrophages: Key Cellular Players in HIV Infection and Pathogenesis”
by Marie Woottum, Sen Yan, Sophie Sayettat, Séverine Grinberg, Dominique Cathelin, Nassima Bekaddour, Jean-Philippe Herbeuval and Serge Benichou
Viruses 2024, 16(2), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16020288
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/2/288

“Bacteriophage–Host Interactions and the Therapeutic Potential of Bacteriophages”
by Leon M. T. Dicks and Wian Vermeulen
Viruses 2024, 16(3), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16030478
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/3/478

“The Full-Genome Analysis and Generation of an Infectious cDNA Clone of a Genotype 6 Hepatitis E Virus Variant Obtained from a Japanese Wild Boar: In Vitro Cultivation in Human Cell Lines”
by Putu Prathiwi Primadharsini, Masaharu Takahashi, Tsutomu Nishizawa, Yukihiro Sato, Shigeo Nagashima, Kazumoto Murata and Hiroaki Okamoto
Viruses 2024, 16(6), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16060842
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/6/842

“The Contribution of Microglia and Brain-Infiltrating Macrophages to the Pathogenesis of Neuroinflammatory and Neurodegenerative Diseases during TMEV Infection of the Central Nervous System”
by Ana Beatriz DePaula-Silva
Viruses 2024, 16(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16010119
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/1/119

“mRNA Vaccine Nanoplatforms and Innate Immunity”
by Lai Wei, Chunhong Dong, Wandi Zhu and Bao-Zhong Wang
Viruses 2024, 16(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16010120
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/1/120

“Viral Vectors in Gene Therapy: Where Do We Stand in 2023?”
by Kenneth Lundstrom
Viruses 2023, 15(3), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030698
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/3/698

“Persistent SARS-CoV-2 Infection, EBV, HHV-6 and Other Factors May Contribute to Inflammation and Autoimmunity in Long COVID”
by Aristo Vojdani, Elroy Vojdani, Evan Saidara and Michael Maes
Viruses 2023, 15(2), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020400
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/2/400

“Current Clinical Landscape and Global Potential of Bacteriophage Therapy”
by Nicole Marie Hitchcock, Danielle Devequi Gomes Nunes, Job Shiach, Katharine Valeria Saraiva Hodel, Josiane Dantas Viana Barbosa, Leticia Alencar Pereira Rodrigues, Brahm Seymour Coler, Milena Botelho Pereira Soares and Roberto Badaró
Viruses 2023, 15(4), 1020; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041020
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/4/1020

“The Role of Viral Infections in the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases”
by Bhargavi Sundaresan, Fatemeh Shirafkan, Kevin Ripperger and Kristin Rattay
Viruses 2023, 15(3), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030782
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/3/782

“The Prevalence of HPV in Oral Cavity Squamous Cell Carcinoma”
by Seyed Keybud Katirachi, Mathias Peter Grønlund, Kathrine Kronberg Jakobsen, Christian Grønhøj and Christian von Buchwald
Viruses 2023, 15(2), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020451
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/2/451

“Zoonotic Animal Influenza Virus and Potential Mixing Vessel Hosts”
by Elsayed M. Abdelwhab and Thomas C. Mettenleiter
Viruses 2023, 15(4), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15040980
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/4/980

“Recent Developments in Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccinology”
by Anna-Lise Williamson
Viruses 2023, 15(7), 1440; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15071440
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/7/1440

“Virus-like Particle Vaccines and Platforms for Vaccine Development”
by Milad Kheirvari, Hong Liu and Ebenezer Tumban
Viruses 2023, 15(5), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15051109
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/5/1109

“Exploration of Microbially Derived Natural Compounds against Monkeypox Virus as Viral Core Cysteine Proteinase Inhibitors”
by Amit Dubey, Maha M. Alawi, Thamir A. Alandijany, Isra M. Alsaady, Sarah A. Altwaim, Amaresh Kumar Sahoo, Vivek Dhar Dwivedi and Esam Ibraheem Azhar
Viruses 2023, 15(1), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15010251
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/1/251

“Epstein–Barr Virus History and Pathogenesis”
by Hui Yu and Erle S. Robertson
Viruses 2023, 15(3), 714; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030714
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/3/714

World AIDS Day, marked on 1 December every year since 1988, is an international day dedicated to raising awareness of the AIDS pandemic caused by the spread of HIV infection and to mourning those who have died of the disease. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a life-threatening condition caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV attacks the immune system of a patient and reduces its resistance to other diseases. Below is a selection of papers published in Viruses (ISSN: 1999-4915) that may be of interest to you.

“Intact Proviral DNA Analysis of the Brain Viral Reservoir and Relationship to Neuroinflammation in People with HIV on Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy”
by Dana Gabuzda, Jun Yin, Vikas Misra, Sukrutha Chettimada and Benjamin B. Gelman
Viruses 2023, 15(4), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041009
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/4/1009

“Profiling the Interaction between Human Serum Albumin and Clinically Relevant HIV Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors”
by Andreia Costa-Tuna, Otávio A. Chaves, Zaida L. Almeida, Rita S. Cunha, João Pina and Carlos Serpa
Viruses 2024, 16(4), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16040491
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/16/4/491

“Treatment Emergent Dolutegravir Resistance Mutations in Individuals Naïve to HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitors: A Rapid Scoping Review”
by Kaiming Tao, Soo-Yon Rhee, Carolyn Chu, Ava Avalos, Amrit K. Ahluwalia, Ravindra K. Gupta, Michael R. Jordan and Robert W. Shafer
Viruses 2023, 15(9), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091932
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/9/1932

“Opportunities for CAR-T Cell Immunotherapy in HIV Cure”
by Gerard Campos-Gonzalez, Javier Martinez-Picado, Talia Velasco-Hernandez and Maria Salgado
Viruses 2023, 15(3), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030789
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/3/789

“Human Hematopoietic Stem Cell Engrafted IL-15 Transgenic NSG Mice Support Robust NK Cell Responses and Sustained HIV-1 Infection”
by Shawn A. Abeynaike, Tridu R. Huynh, Abeera Mehmood, Teha Kim, Kayla Frank, Kefei Gao, Cristina Zalfa, Angel Gandarilla, Leonard Shultz and Silke Paust
Viruses 2023, 15(2), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020365
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/2/365

“Thymic Exhaustion and Increased Immune Activation Are the Main Mechanisms Involved in Impaired Immunological Recovery of HIV-Positive Patients under ART”
by Maria Carolina Dos Santos Guedes, Wlisses Henrique Veloso Carvalho-Silva, José Leandro Andrade-Santos, Maria Carolina Accioly Brelaz-de-Castro, Fabrício Oliveira Souto and Rafael Lima Guimarães
Viruses 2023, 15(2), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020440
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/2/440

“ROS-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction in CD4 T Cells from ART-Controlled People Living with HIV”
by Madison Schank, Juan Zhao, Ling Wang, Lam Ngoc Thao Nguyen, Yi Zhang, Xiao Y. Wu, Jinyu Zhang, Yong Jiang, Shunbin Ning, Mohamed El Gazzar et al.
Viruses 2023, 15(5), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15051061
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/5/1061

“Development of HIV-Resistant CAR T Cells by CRISPR/Cas-Mediated CAR Integration into the CCR5 Locus”
by Frederik Holm Rothemejer, Nanna Pi Lauritsen, Anna Karina Juhl, Mariane Høgsbjerg Schleimann, Saskia König, Ole Schmeltz Søgaard, Rasmus O. Bak and Martin Tolstrup
Viruses 2023, 15(1), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15010202
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/1/202

“The Association between CCL5/RANTES SNPs and Susceptibility to HIV-1 Infection: A Meta-Analysis”
by Marcos Jessé Abrahão Silva, Rebecca Lobato Marinho, Pabllo Antonny Silva dos Santos, Carolynne Silva dos Santos, Layana Rufino Ribeiro, Yan Corrêa Rodrigues, Karla Valéria Batista Lima and Luana Nepomuceno Gondim Costa Lima
Viruses 2023, 15(9), 1958; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091958
Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/9/1958