The Effects of Personalized Nudges on Cognitively Disengaged Student Behavior in Low-Stakes Assessments
Abstract
:1. Introduction
The Present Study
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Materials
2.3. Design and Procedure
Experimental Conditions
2.4. Analyses
2.4.1. Data Preprocessing and Analysis Approach
2.4.2. Response Disengagement
2.4.3. Performance
2.4.4. Students Behavior after Receiving a Nudge
2.4.5. Metacognitive Measures
3. Results
3.1. Response Disengagement
3.2. Performance
3.3. Student Behavior after Receiving a Nudge
3.4. Metacognitive Measures
4. Discussion
4.1. Theoretical Implications
4.2. Practical Implications
4.3. Limitations and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Item Response Disengagement | Item Score | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictors | Estimate | SE | z-Value | p-Value | Estimate | SE | z-Value | p-Value |
(Intercept) | −5.097 | 0.403 | −12,664 | <.001 | −0.15 | 0.298 | −0.504 | .614 |
Condition [Control] | 0.364 | 0.158 | 2.305 | .021 | 0.035 | 0.065 | 0.547 | .584 |
Condition [Instruction] | 0.470 | 0.158 | 2.981 | .003 | −0.058 | 0.065 | −0.900 | .368 |
Block [2] | 1.056 | 0.061 | 17.463 | <.001 | −0.133 | 0.036 | −3.703 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [B] | 0.963 | 0.188 | 5.12 | <.001 | −0.515 | 0.073 | −7.038 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [C] | 1.417 | 0.195 | 7.257 | <.001 | −0.956 | 0.078 | −12.239 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [D] | 1.701 | 0.217 | 7.856 | <.001 | −1.128 | 0.09 | −12.590 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [F] | 2.090 | 0.220 | 9.523 | <.001 | −1.262 | 0.093 | −13.553 | <.001 |
Appendix D
Item Response Disengagement for RTE < 1 | Item Score for RTE < 1 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictors | Estimate | SE | z-Value | p-Value | Estimate | SE | z-Value | p-Value |
(Intercept) | −3.531 | 0.291 | −12.157 | <.001 | −0.531 | 0.290 | −1.828 | .068 |
Condition [Control] | 0.383 | 0.134 | 2.862 | .004 | 0.053 | 0.075 | 0.715 | .475 |
Condition [Instruction] | 0.590 | 0.135 | 4.368 | <.001 | 0.027 | 0.076 | 0.350 | .726 |
Block [2] | 1.040 | 0.062 | 16.846 | <.001 | −0.182 | 0.048 | −3.769 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [B] | 0.384 | 0.170 | 2.264 | .024 | −0.367 | 0.091 | −4.021 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [C] | 0.659 | 0.173 | 3.807 | <.001 | −0.647 | 0.095 | −6.836 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [D] | 0.964 | 0.190 | 5.083 | <.001 | −0.951 | 0.107 | −8.865 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [F] | 1.109 | 0.187 | 5.942 | <.001 | −1.008 | 0.107 | −9.451 | <.001 |
Item Response Disengagement after Deserving First Nudge | Item Score after Deserving First Nudge | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictors | Estimate | SE | z-Value | p-Value | Estimate | SE | z-Value | p-Value |
(Intercept) | −6.212 | 0.597 | −10.412 | <.001 | −0.080 | 0.308 | −0.259 | .068 |
Condition [Control] | 0.756 | 0.262 | 2.883 | .004 | −0.010 | 0.075 | −0.139 | .890 |
Condition [Instruction] | 0.820 | 0.261 | 3.138 | .002 | −0.146 | 0.075 | −1.946 | .052 |
Block [2] | 0.629 | 0.093 | 6.785 | <.001 | −0.133 | 0.044 | −3.006 | .003 |
Current Math Grade [B] | 1.292 | 0.319 | 4.056 | <.001 | −0.504 | 0.084 | −5.988 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [C] | 2.063 | 0.329 | 6.264 | <.001 | −1.003 | 0.090 | −11.108 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [D] | 2.538 | 0.360 | 7.052 | <.001 | −1.131 | 0.104 | −10.878 | <.001 |
Current Math Grade [F] | 2.910 | 0.363 | 8.009 | <.001 | −1.270 | 0.108 | −11.771 | <.001 |
Appendix E
Perceived Effort | Perceived Difficulty | Expected Performance | Feeling Very Nervous | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictors | Estimates | CI (95%) | p-Value | Estimates | CI (95%) | p-Value | Odds Ratios | CI (95%) | p-Value | Estimates | CI (95%) | p-Value |
(Intercept) | 2.57 | 1.83–3.32 | <.001 | 8.66 | 8.05–9.28 | <.001 | 0.39 | 0.21–0.71 | .002 | 3.56 | 2.52–4.60 | <.001 |
Condition [Control] | −0.13 | −0.44–0.18 | .403 | 0.14 | 0.36–0.64 | .587 | 0.79 | 0.49–1.26 | .320 | −0.21 | −0.65–0.22 | .339 |
Condition [Instruction] | −0.09 | −0.43–0.25 | .614 | −0.00 | −0.55–0.54 | .989 | 0.96 | 0.57–1.62 | .884 | −0.08 | −0.56–0.40 | .744 |
RTE | 1.94 | 1.12–2.76 | <.001 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.32 | −0.84–1.48 | .587 |
Math Score | - | - | - | −3.39 | −4.95–−1.82 | <.001 | 17.03 | 3.75–82.00 | <.001 | - | - | - |
Observations | 416 | Observations | 397 | Observations | 401 | Observations | 410 |
1 | The final models reported in the manuscript include all student responses to the items. To further investigate the effects of nudges, we also conducted two additional analyses which included a subset of data that excluded the students who did not receive or deserve any nudge (i.e., RTE = 1) and a subset of data that only included the data after students’ first detected not-fully-effortful response (i.e., after deserving first nudge). The results of both analyses showed similar patterns with the overall results that were reported in the manuscript although the effects of nudges were larger after excluding students who had RTE = 1 (i.e., RTE < 1). For brevity and simplicity, we included these additional analyses on disengaged responses and performance in Appendix D. |
2 | Alternatively, it might also be the case that students felt that they have found out and denied that they did not give their best effort, or alternatively they did not put effort to evaluate their effort and just clicked on the option that they gave their best effort (although, if it was the case, we would expect a more random selection of one of the presented options, possibly skewed by the last location of the mouse to decrease the effort to click on an option without effort). |
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Features | Wise et al. (2006) | The Present Study |
---|---|---|
Sample | University students | 8th-grade students |
Domain | Scientific reasoning and fine arts | Mathematics |
Experimental manipulations | Warning vs. Control | Nudge vs. Control Nudge vs. Instruction |
Disengagement measure | Rapid guessing behavior | Not-fully-effortful responses |
Method to detect disengagement | Data-driven | Theory-driven |
Item navigation | Students had to answer each item and they were not allowed to go back to an item after they submitted their answer. | Students could omit answers and they were able to navigate between items within a block. |
Warning/Nudge algorithm | The first warning was presented after detecting three consecutive RGBs. The second warning was presented if the students had another three consecutive RGBs. | Students were presented with a nudge to give their best effort following each first-attempt response that was both incorrect and not-fully-effortful. |
Outcome measures | Response time effort, total score | Item response disengagement, item score |
Item Response Disengagement | Item Score | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictors | Odds Ratios | CI (95%) | p-Value | Odds Ratios | CI (95%) | p-Value |
(Intercept) | 0.01 | 0.00–0.01 | <.001 | 0.89 | 0.50–1.60 | .700 |
Condition (Control) | 1.44 | 1.06–1.96 | .021 | 0.91 | 0.80–1.03 | .144 |
Condition (Instruction) | 1.60 | 1.17–2.18 | .003 | 0.97 | 0.85–1.10 | .584 |
Block (2) | 2.87 | 2.55–3.24 | <.001 | 0.28 | 0.24–0.34 | <.001 |
Current MATH Grade (B) | 2.62 | 1.81–3.79 | <.001 | 0.88 | 0.82–0.94 | <.001 |
Current MATH Grade (C) | 4.13 | 2.81–6.05 | <.001 | 0.6 | 0.52–0.69 | <.001 |
Current MATH Grade (D) | 5.48 | 3.58–8.37 | <.001 | 0.38 | 0.33–0.45 | <.001 |
Current MATH Grade (F) | 8.09 | 5.26–12.43 | <.001 | 0.32 | 0.27–0.39 | <.001 |
Random Effects | Random Effects | |||||
σ2 | 3.29 | σ2 | 3.29 | |||
τ00 UserID:Teacher | 1.99 | τ00 UserID:Teacher | 0.28 | |||
τ00 ItemID | 0.63 | τ00 ItemID | 1.54 | |||
τ00 Teacher | 1.18 | τ00 Teacher | 0.29 | |||
ICC | 0.54 | ICC | 0.39 | |||
N UserID | 782 | N UserID | 780 | |||
N Teacher | 12 | N Teacher | 12 | |||
N ItemID | 26 | N ItemID | 26 | |||
Observations | 18,295 | Observations | 18,278 |
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Arslan, B.; Finn, B. The Effects of Personalized Nudges on Cognitively Disengaged Student Behavior in Low-Stakes Assessments. J. Intell. 2023, 11, 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110204
Arslan B, Finn B. The Effects of Personalized Nudges on Cognitively Disengaged Student Behavior in Low-Stakes Assessments. Journal of Intelligence. 2023; 11(11):204. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110204
Chicago/Turabian StyleArslan, Burcu, and Bridgid Finn. 2023. "The Effects of Personalized Nudges on Cognitively Disengaged Student Behavior in Low-Stakes Assessments" Journal of Intelligence 11, no. 11: 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110204