Journal of Intelligence

18 pages, 1419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Importance of Individual and Expert Knowledge Grows as Clan Identity Diminishes: The Bedouin of Southern Israel Adapt to Anthropocene Ecology

by Michael Weinstock, Turky Abu Aleon and Patricia M. Greenfield

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050051 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

Before the Anthropocene, Bedouin communities in Southern Israel were based on a clan structure—a kin-based social network; clans were culturally and socially homogenous communities with a strong authority structure. Work consisted of subsistence activities necessary for physical survival. Group-based authority and cooperative problem [...] Read more.

Before the Anthropocene, Bedouin communities in Southern Israel were based on a clan structure—a kin-based social network; clans were culturally and socially homogenous communities with a strong authority structure. Work consisted of subsistence activities necessary for physical survival. Group-based authority and cooperative problem solving were adaptive in this ecology. Throughout the Anthropocene, the Bedouin of Southern Israel have had to adapt to diverse urban environments, expanded educational opportunity, and exposure to media emanating from different cultures. Our study explored the implications of these ecological shifts for epistemic thinking by comparing three generations of 60 Bedouin families: adolescent girls, their mothers, and their grandmothers (N = 180). Families were evenly divided among three residence types differing in degree of urbanization and degree of population homogeneity: unrecognized Bedouin villages consisting of single clans; recognized Bedouin villages, towns, or cities, consisting of multiple clans; and ethnically diverse cities. Results: Across the generations, media exposure and formally educated parents have weakened the epistemic authority of family elders, in turn weakening clan identity. Ethnically diverse cities have weakened extended family identity. At the same time, personal knowledge and professional expertise have gained new cultural importance. These changes in epistemology and identity are adaptive in the ecological environments that have multiplied in the Anthropocene era. Local identity was strongest both in diverse cities, with their many attractions, and in unrecognized villages, where the population continues to occupy ancestral lands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities and Their Development in the Anthropocene)

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17 pages, 1156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Critical, Creative, Metacognitive, and Empathic Thinking Skills on High and Low Academic Achievements of Pre-Service Teachers

by Hatice Kumandaş-Öztürk and Özlem Ulu-Kalın

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040050 - 16 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study aims to determine how higher-order thinking skills—namely creative thinking, critical thinking, metacognitive thinking, and empathic thinking—impact the academic achievement of pre-service teachers at both low and high levels. The study was conducted using the predictive model. The case sampling method, a [...] Read more.

This study aims to determine how higher-order thinking skills—namely creative thinking, critical thinking, metacognitive thinking, and empathic thinking—impact the academic achievement of pre-service teachers at both low and high levels. The study was conducted using the predictive model. The case sampling method, a purposive sampling method, was used in the study. The study participants included 196 volunteer pre-service teachers attending Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Education. The study data were analyzed using binomial logistic regression analysis. The analysis revealed that the academic achievement of the pre-service teachers varied significantly based on other higher-order thinking skills, except for empathy. Furthermore, the contributions of these variables to academic achievement were ranked based on Exp(β) (odds/likelihood). The findings demonstrated that all variables affected academic achievement, while creative thinking skills contributed most significantly, followed by critical thinking and metacognitive thinking skills. It was also determined that the contribution of empathy skills was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). It was observed that the increase in higher-order thinking skills led to greater academic achievement. Similarly, low higher-order thinking skills significantly led to a decrease in achievement. Thus, it could be recommended that learning activities be revised, and the number of activities aimed at improving thinking skills should be increased for the active acquisition of higher-order thinking skills in higher teacher training institutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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16 pages, 2711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Practice Testing Facilitates Forward Navigation but Undermines Backward Navigation During Map Learning

by Shaohang Liu and Chunliang Yang

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040049 - 15 Apr 2025

Abstract

Practice testing (i.e., retrieval practice) has been established as a powerful learning strategy by comparison with many others, such as restudying. The current study explores whether practice testing can boost learning of map routes. Experiment 1 demonstrated that, by comparison with restudying, testing [...] Read more.

Practice testing (i.e., retrieval practice) has been established as a powerful learning strategy by comparison with many others, such as restudying. The current study explores whether practice testing can boost learning of map routes. Experiment 1 demonstrated that, by comparison with restudying, testing enhanced forward navigation and facilitated memory for peripheral information along the route. Experiment 2 examined the testing effect on backward navigation by asking participants to navigate from the endpoint to the start point in the final recall test. The results showed a negative testing effect: testing produced poorer backward navigation performance by comparison with restudying. Experiment 3 demonstrated that showing participants the tracing of the cursor during the retrieval practice phase eliminated the negative testing effect on backward navigation. Overall, the documented findings suggest that retrieval practice can facilitate forward navigation but impair backward navigation when the navigation task requires reorganization and mental rotation of the learned routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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19 pages, 1006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence in Portuguese Youth: Age and Gender Differences

by Adelinda Araújo Candeias

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040048 - 15 Apr 2025

Abstract

Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a pivotal role in youth development, influencing well-being, social adaptation, and academic success. This study aimed to assess age- and gender-related differences in perceived EI among Portuguese youth using the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i:YV), a validated [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a pivotal role in youth development, influencing well-being, social adaptation, and academic success. This study aimed to assess age- and gender-related differences in perceived EI among Portuguese youth using the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i:YV), a validated and widely applied tool. A sample of 931 students aged 8 to 16 from various regions of Portugal was evaluated across five EI domains: intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and general mood. The results show that emotional intelligence changes during adolescence, with clear age and gender differences. The data shows that as adolescents grow older, their perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) tends to decline, especially in adaptability and intrapersonal skills. While stress management and interpersonal abilities stay steady, they increasingly struggle with self-awareness and emotional regulation. Interpersonal skills remain the strongest, reflecting solid social abilities, while intrapersonal skills are the weakest, pointing to challenges with emotional insight. This means that while social connection and stress resilience hold up, adapting to change and managing emotions become harder with age. Gender differences also emerged, with girls demonstrating higher interpersonal skills and stress management in early adolescence, while boys reported better general mood in mid-adolescence. Despite these differences, no significant variations were found in the global EQi:YV scores. These results challenge the assumption of a linear increase in EI with age and emphasize the importance of a nuanced understanding of EI development. The study highlights the need for interventions that support emotional development throughout adolescence and targeted educational interventions tailored to the specific emotional competencies of different age and gender groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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15 pages, 1305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Creativity Perception of Music Practitioners

by Haixia Ma, Yan Zhang, Xin Shan and Xiaoxi Hu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040047 - 15 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) tools and the creative abilities of music practitioners within the context of globalization and technological advancements that are transforming creative industries. Through a quantitative analysis, the study assesses how AI tool usage influences creative [...] Read more.

This study investigates the relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) tools and the creative abilities of music practitioners within the context of globalization and technological advancements that are transforming creative industries. Through a quantitative analysis, the study assesses how AI tool usage influences creative output. By surveying music practitioners from diverse backgrounds, it captures their experiences and perceptions of AI technologies in music creation. Grounded in cognitive science and diffusion of innovation theories, the research also empirically examines the relationship between AI technology acceptance and creativity perception, while considering the role of socioeconomic factors. Regression analysis was used to explore the relationships between key variables, ensuring robust and reliable results. The results suggest that AI technology acceptance is significantly correlated with creative performance, particularly among individuals with formal music education and experience using music composition software. However, socioeconomic factors such as age, gender, and professional background also influence how extensively AI is utilized in the creative process. These findings provide new insights into AI’s role in creative industries and offer data to inform music education and technology training policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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5 pages, 669 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to the Special Issue: Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity

by Chunliang Yang and Liang Luo

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040046 - 9 Apr 2025

Abstract

Metacognition, particularly the ability to monitor and regulate cognitive processes, plays a crucial role in effective learning [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

17 pages, 5653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automated Graphic Divergent Thinking Assessment: A Multimodal Machine Learning Approach

by Hezhi Zhang, Hang Dong, Ying Wang, Xinyu Zhang, Fan Yu, Bailin Ren and Jianping Xu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040045 - 7 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study proposes a multimodal deep learning model for automated scoring of image-based divergent thinking tests, integrating visual and semantic features to improve assessment objectivity and efficiency. Utilizing 708 Chinese high school students’ responses from validated tests, we developed a system combining pretrained [...] Read more.

This study proposes a multimodal deep learning model for automated scoring of image-based divergent thinking tests, integrating visual and semantic features to improve assessment objectivity and efficiency. Utilizing 708 Chinese high school students’ responses from validated tests, we developed a system combining pretrained ResNet50 (image features) and GloVe (text embeddings), fused through a fully connected neural network with MSE loss and Adam optimization. The training set (603 images, triple-rated consensus scores) showed strong alignment with human scores (Pearson r = 0.810). Validation on 100 images demonstrated generalization capacity (r = 0.561), while participant-level analysis achieved 0.602 correlation with total human scores. Results indicate multimodal integration effectively captures divergent thinking dimensions, enabling simultaneous evaluation of novelty, fluency, and flexibility. This approach reduces manual scoring subjectivity, streamlines assessment processes, and maintains cost-effectiveness while preserving psychometric rigor. The findings advance automated cognitive evaluation methodologies by demonstrating the complementary value of visual-textual feature fusion in creativity assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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15 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Role of Cognitive Abilities and Math Anxiety in Adolescent Math Achievement

by Lorenzo Esposito, Irene Tonizzi, Maria Carmen Usai and David Giofrè

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040044 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

A consistent amount of research has tried to study the contributions of cognitive and emotional factors involved in math achievement. Despite this, research examining their joint role in children is scarce. In this paper, we examined the joint role of cognitive and math [...] Read more.

A consistent amount of research has tried to study the contributions of cognitive and emotional factors involved in math achievement. Despite this, research examining their joint role in children is scarce. In this paper, we examined the joint role of cognitive and math anxiety on math achievement in a sample of 135 seventh-grade children (54% male, M_age = 12.79, SD = 0.47). Math achievement was measured using a validated paper-and-pencil test, while higher-order cognitive abilities were assessed with a PMAs test. Working memory was evaluated through two verbal and two visuo-spatial experimental span tasks. Inhibitory control was measured using three computerized tasks adapted from the classic Stroop, Flanker, and Simon tasks. Math anxiety was assessed with an AMAS questionnaire. A series of correlation analyses and path models were conducted to understand the complex relationships among the factors. The correlations showed a positive relationship among our cognitive abilities and a negative correlation with math anxiety. The results from the path analysis showed a strong effect of higher-order cognitive abilities on math achievement (β = 0.44, p < .001) and highlighted the mediating role of working memory between math anxiety and math performance (β = −0.04, 95%CI [−0.11; −0.00]). Conversely, inhibitory control did not seem to play a crucial role in this relationship (β = −0.03, 95%CI [−0.08; 0.00]). These findings are discussed in relation to current theoretical frameworks. Interventions aimed at reducing math anxiety could help improve math achievement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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20 pages, 2520 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Generative AI and ChatGPT Break Human Supremacy in Mathematics and Reshape Competence in Cognitive-Demanding Problem-Solving Tasks?

by Deniz Kaya and Selim Yavuz

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040043 - 2 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the potential of generative artificial intelligence tools in addressing cognitive challenges encountered by humans during problem-solving. The performance of ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 models in the NAEP mathematics assessments was evaluated, particularly in relation to the cognitive demands placed on students. [...] Read more.

This study investigates the potential of generative artificial intelligence tools in addressing cognitive challenges encountered by humans during problem-solving. The performance of ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 models in the NAEP mathematics assessments was evaluated, particularly in relation to the cognitive demands placed on students. Sixty NAEP mathematics assessment tasks, coded by field experts, were analyzed within a framework of cognitive complexity. ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 provided responses to each question, which were then evaluated using NAEP’s scoring criteria. The study’s dataset was analyzed using the average performance scores of students who answered correctly and the item-wise response percentages. The results indicated that ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 outperformed most students on individual items in the NAEP mathematics assessment. Furthermore, as the cognitive demand increased, higher performance scores were required to answer questions correctly. This trend was observed across the 4th, 8th, and 12th grades, though ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 did not demonstrate statistically significant sensitivity to increased cognitive demands at the 12th-grade level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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25 pages, 987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship with Subjective Well-Being and Academic Achievement in University Students

by Presentación Ángeles Caballero-García and Sara Sánchez Ruiz

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040042 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

The demands of the labor market are a constant challenge for universities, emphasizing the crucial importance of competency-based education to make our students more academically and professionally competitive. The benefits of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Subjective Well-Being (happiness/life satisfaction) (SWB) have been evidenced [...] Read more.

The demands of the labor market are a constant challenge for universities, emphasizing the crucial importance of competency-based education to make our students more academically and professionally competitive. The benefits of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Subjective Well-Being (happiness/life satisfaction) (SWB) have been evidenced as necessary competencies in personal, academic, and professional contexts. Our research assessed these variables in a sample of 300 university students from Madrid (Spain), comprising 68 (22.7%) men and 232 (77.3%) women, aged between 18 and 47 years (M = 21.72; SD = 0.42). Our objective was to determine their baseline levels, study their relationship with Academic Achievement (AA), analyze their changes after a positive emotional intervention, and determine if they are predictors of AA. For this, we used a quasi-experimental pre/post-test design with experimental/control groups. Our results show medium–high baseline levels of EI, SWB, and AA in our students; positive correlations, which improved in intensity in the post-test, between EI (clarity and repair) and SWB, between AA and EI (attention), and between AA and happiness (OHI); and better scores in EI and happiness in the post-test compared to the pre-test, and in the experimental group compared to the control group, as a result of our intervention. Finally, the findings indicate that EI (attention) and SWB (life satisfaction) jointly predict a small part of AA. The data are discussed for their implications for change in higher education, towards competency-based education interventions that improve the outcomes and employability of our students and bridge the university/industry gap. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

23 pages, 3315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Reasoning and Its Contribution to Mathematical Performance Across Different Content Domains: Evidence from Chinese Students

by Tianshu Xu, Siyu Sun and Qiping Kong

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040041 - 24 Mar 2025

Abstract

Recent studies have provided convincing evidence highlighting the strong relationship between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance. However, there is a limited body of research exploring the contributions of different spatial reasoning constructs to mathematical performance across various content domains, particularly within non-Western contexts. [...] Read more.

Recent studies have provided convincing evidence highlighting the strong relationship between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance. However, there is a limited body of research exploring the contributions of different spatial reasoning constructs to mathematical performance across various content domains, particularly within non-Western contexts. This study investigates the relationship between spatial reasoning skills—including mental rotation, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation—and mathematical performance across various domains (number, geometric shapes and measures and data display) among Chinese elementary school students in grade four (ages 9–10). The results indicate that overall spatial reasoning significantly predicts mathematical performance across various domains. All three spatial reasoning constructs significantly contribute to performance in the number and geometric shapes and measures domains, with mental rotation and spatial orientation being the strongest predictors of performance in these respective content domains. For data display performance, spatial orientation and spatial visualization significantly contribute, with spatial visualization being the strongest predictor. Although no significant gender differences were found in the overall link between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance, subgroup regression analysis showed variations. For male students, spatial orientation was the main predictor across content areas. For female students, mental rotation was the key predictor for number and geometry, while spatial visualization was most significant for data display. Full article

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16 pages, 1922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Planning, Cognitive Reflection, Inter-Temporal Choice, and Risky Choice in Chess Players: An Expertise Approach

by Guillermo Campitelli, Martín Labollita and Merim Bilalić

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030040 - 19 Mar 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the cognitive processes underlying chess expertise by examining planning, cognitive reflection, inter-temporal choice, and risky choice in chess players. The study involves 25 chess players and 25 non-chess players, comparing their performance on the Tower of London (TOL) task, Cognitive [...] Read more.

This study investigates the cognitive processes underlying chess expertise by examining planning, cognitive reflection, inter-temporal choice, and risky choice in chess players. The study involves 25 chess players and 25 non-chess players, comparing their performance on the Tower of London (TOL) task, Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), inter-temporal choice (ITC), and risky choice tasks. Results indicate that chess players outperform non-chess players in TOL and CRT, showing superior planning and cognitive reflection abilities. Chess players also prefer future rewards over immediate ones in ITC, suggesting a higher propensity for future more rewarding options. In risky choice tasks, chess players made more decisions based on expected value than non-chess players, but the evidence in favour of differences between groups is very weak. Despite this study not being able to establish causality, the findings highlight the cognitive advantages associated with chess expertise and suggest potential areas for further research on the transfer of cognitive skills from chess to other domains and differences in general abilities between experts and novices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

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15 pages, 1219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Beliefs About Critical Competence in a Sample of Psychosocial and Socio-Educational Intervention Professionals in Master’s Degree Training

by Francisco Jose Garcia-Moro and Diego Gomez-Baya

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030039 - 18 Mar 2025

Abstract

Critical thinking is a skill of great importance in our current and future society. Its value goes beyond all theoretical doubt although it requires more practical development, especially in terms of coordinated and evidence-based approaches. In addition, the ethical foundation must permeate the [...] Read more.

Critical thinking is a skill of great importance in our current and future society. Its value goes beyond all theoretical doubt although it requires more practical development, especially in terms of coordinated and evidence-based approaches. In addition, the ethical foundation must permeate the entire critical process, indicating what to criticize, for what, why, how, and when, elements that should not be left to improvisation or what is traditionally done. The aim of this research was to describe the ethical connotations that come together in the critical process. To this end, we focused on a group case study of undergraduate and graduate students of Psychosocial and Socio-educational studies in Spain, collecting information with instruments built ad hoc. The results show little practical awareness of the weight of ethics in critical decisions, producing a change in orientation regarding educational training to improve decision-making based on critical thinking and ethics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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30 pages, 1048 KiB

Open AccessReview

Gender and Accuracy in Decoding Affect Cues: A Meta-Analysis

by Judith A. Hall, Sarah D. Gunnery and Katja Schlegel

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030038 - 18 Mar 2025

Abstract

Gender differences in understanding the meanings of affect cues, often labeled emotion recognition, have been studied for over a century. Past reviews of the literature have concluded that girls and women score higher than boys and men on tests of accuracy in decoding [...] Read more.

Gender differences in understanding the meanings of affect cues, often labeled emotion recognition, have been studied for over a century. Past reviews of the literature have concluded that girls and women score higher than boys and men on tests of accuracy in decoding affect cues, which are most often tested in the cue modalities of face, body, and content-free voice. The present meta-analysis updates knowledge on this topic by including many more studies (1188 effect sizes in 1011 studies; total N = 837,637) and examining a wide range of moderators such as health status of sample, international location, cue channels of the test, and other sample and test characteristics. Indeed, the gender difference favoring girls and women still exists, and evidence for publication bias was weak. The difference is not large (r = 0.12, d = 0.24), but it is extremely consistent across many moderators, which, even when significant, show minor differences. Health status was the only moderator to produce groups without a significant gender difference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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20 pages, 2201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Critical Thinking and Teacher Training in Secondary Education

by Yasaldez Eder Loaiza, John Rodolfo Zona and Maria Fulvia Rios

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030037 - 13 Mar 2025

Abstract

Various studies on the formation of critical thinking in teachers express difficulties in the training of teachers at different levels of education. Some of them recognize conceptual dispersion evidenced in their conceptions and explanations; others recognize curricular gaps without clear and coherent programs [...] Read more.

Various studies on the formation of critical thinking in teachers express difficulties in the training of teachers at different levels of education. Some of them recognize conceptual dispersion evidenced in their conceptions and explanations; others recognize curricular gaps without clear and coherent programs for their development; and a third group recognize that training in critical thinking requires both academic training as well as personal training of the subject. Most of the studies agree on training teachers from all fields of knowledge, where theoretical and methodological elements are provided to form critical thinkers. For this reason, the present research, developed with five teachers from different areas of secondary education in which different sources of information were collected and analyzed, contributes to the reflection with different theoretical perspectives and methodological strategies used by teachers, which were contrasted with the theories of critical thinking (psychological, philosophical and didactics of sciences). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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11 pages, 1279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dissociable Effects of Verbalization on Solving Insight and Non-Insight Problems

by Laura Macchi, Francesco Poli and Laura Caravona

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030036 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

While there is broad consensus that non-insight problems are typically solved through conscious, stepwise processes, the mechanisms underlying insight problem solving remain under debate. According to the special process view, insight relies on an unconscious restructuring that is susceptible to verbal overshadowing. In [...] Read more.

While there is broad consensus that non-insight problems are typically solved through conscious, stepwise processes, the mechanisms underlying insight problem solving remain under debate. According to the special process view, insight relies on an unconscious restructuring that is susceptible to verbal overshadowing. In contrast, the business-as-usual approach maintains that insight and non-insight solutions both emerge via similar, conscious procedures that should be unaffected by verbalization. A third, challenging, perspective, the unconscious analytic thought approach, claims that the insight problem-solving process is not only unconscious but also analytic, instead of being merely associative. Actually, this process requires cognitive resources also works at an unconscious layer, suggesting that it can be disrupted by forced verbalization, which demands great cognitive effort. Therefore, according to this approach, being asked to verbalize the simultaneous processing of insight problem solving would hampers restructuring. To disentangle these positions, we compared participants’ performances on an insight problem and a non-insight problem under either concurrent verbalization or silent conditions. Our results show that verbalization significantly hampered insight problem solving, yet dramatically aided non-insight performance. Overall, our results provide evidence supporting the role of unconscious analytic processes in the resolution of insight problems, in contrast with the stepwise, conscious procedure used for the resolution of non-insight problems. Full article

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22 pages, 833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Emotional Intelligence, Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy, and Prenatal Maternal Expectations in Women Attending a Pregnancy School

by Aleyna Bayındır and Hülya Tosun

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030035 - 10 Mar 2025

Abstract

This study was conducted to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI), breastfeeding self-efficacy, and maternal expectations of women who did and did not receive education and counseling during pregnancy. An observational cross-sectional study was conducted in a state hospital with 146 pregnant [...] Read more.

This study was conducted to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI), breastfeeding self-efficacy, and maternal expectations of women who did and did not receive education and counseling during pregnancy. An observational cross-sectional study was conducted in a state hospital with 146 pregnant women (intervention group, n = 72; control group, n = 74). The intervention group had five stages, while the control group received standard pregnancy care. Data is collected by the “Personal Information Form”, “Rotterdam EI Scale”, “Prenatal Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale”, and “Prenatal Maternal Expectations Scale”. When the emotional intelligence scores increased in the intervention group, breastfeeding self-efficacy and antenatal motherhood expectations also increased in the intervention group. In addition, the intervention group’s EI, EI self-evaluation sub-dimension, prenatal motherhood expectations, unrealistic negative motherhood expectations mean, and breastfeeding self-efficacy scale were higher than those of the control group. The regression analysis revealed that the “self-evaluation” sub-dimension of the EI in the intervention group is correlated with regulate others and their own emotions, EI, breastfeeding self-efficacy, and prenatal motherhood expectations. This study shows that pregnant women who attended antenatal classes during the prenatal period had higher EI, breastfeeding self-efficacy, and prenatal maternal expectations than those who were pregnant and did not receive education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

17 pages, 949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Critical Thinking and Metacognition: Pathways to Empathy and Psychological Well-Being

by Miguel H. Guamanga, Carlos Saiz, Silvia F. Rivas and Patricia Morales Bueno

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030034 - 10 Mar 2025

Abstract

This study examines the relationships between critical thinking, metacognition, psychological well-being, and empathy using structural equation modeling. The study sample consists of 155 university students from a higher education institution in Spain, who completed the PENCRISAL, the metacognitive abilities inventory, the Ryff psychological [...] Read more.

This study examines the relationships between critical thinking, metacognition, psychological well-being, and empathy using structural equation modeling. The study sample consists of 155 university students from a higher education institution in Spain, who completed the PENCRISAL, the metacognitive abilities inventory, the Ryff psychological well-being scale, and the empathy quotient, which assess these psychological constructs. The results indicate that critical thinking has a direct positive effect on metacognition, which, in turn, is significantly associated with higher levels of psychological well-being and empathy. These findings reinforce the essential role of critical thinking in fostering cognitive self-regulation and socioemotional competencies. Furthermore, this study provides empirical evidence supporting the integration of critical thinking into educational programs, emphasizing its potential to enhance reflective thinking, emotional awareness, and interpersonal understanding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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15 pages, 1261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Applicant Reactions to Gamified Cognitive Ability Tests Differ Between High- Versus Low-Stakes Settings?

by Marie L. Ohlms and Klaus G. Melchers

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030033 - 7 Mar 2025

Cited by 1

Abstract

Although cognitive ability tests are among the best predictors of job and training performance, their acceptance among applicants is limited. However, with the current talent shortage, applicant reactions to assessments have become increasingly important. Gamification is a promising approach for improving reactions to [...] Read more.

Although cognitive ability tests are among the best predictors of job and training performance, their acceptance among applicants is limited. However, with the current talent shortage, applicant reactions to assessments have become increasingly important. Gamification is a promising approach for improving reactions to cognitive ability tests. However, it remains unclear how findings from low-stakes studies of gamified assessments generalize to high-stakes settings. In this quasi-experimental study (N = 210), we compared reactions to a gamified cognitive test from a low-stakes simulated selection setting with experimental participants and from a high-stakes selection setting with real applicants. Test takers in both settings completed the same gamified cognitive ability test and then rated several applicant reactions variables. We found a clear effect of the test setting with real applicants showing more positive reactions to the gamified test concerning perceived fairness, test motivation, organizational attractiveness, behavioral intentions, organizational image, clarity of work activity, and enjoyment compared to participants in the low-stakes setting, whereas there were no differences for perceived job-relatedness and opportunity to perform. These findings highlight the influence of test setting on applicant reactions and underscore the importance of examining environmental factors for research on the effects of gamification in cognitive ability testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Ability Testing in the Workplace: Modern Approaches and Methods)

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